Download or read book The Influence of Large Carnivore Recovery and Summer Conditions on the Migratory Elk of Wyoming s Absaroka Mountains written by Arthur Dehon Middleton and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 144 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: I studied the Clarks Fork elk herd, a population of 4,000 elk whose migratory individuals winter in outlying areas of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), and summer in core areas of Yellowstone National Park (YNP). I first evaluated the long-term ecological context of the Clarks Fork herd's changing demography. Migratory have elk experienced a 21-year, 70% reduction in recruitment and a 4-year, 19% depression in the pregnancy rate, caused largely by infrequent reproduction of females that were young or lactating. Over the same period, resident elk have experienced increasing recruitment and a high pregnancy rate. Large-scale changes in predation and habitat quality appear responsible for the declining productivity of migratory elk. Migrants are now exposed to four times as many grizzly bears and wolves as residents. Both predators consume migratory elk calves at high rates in the Yellowstone wilderness, but occur less frequently in the year-round habitats of resident elk, due to lethal management and human disturbance. Migratory elk have also recently experienced a shorter spring green-up, consistent with recent drying and warming trends in the region. These findings suggest that large carnivore recovery and drought, operating simultaneously along an elevation gradient, have disproportionately influenced the demography of migratory elk. Next, I evaluated the hypothesis that the risk of wolf predation is contributing to the low productivity of migratory elk, via changes in winter behavior that reduce individual females' nutrition and pregnancy probability. Although such 'non-consumptive' effects (NCEs) of predators have been studied extensively in small-scale, experimental systems, NCEs have never been comprehensively evaluated among wide-ranging large mammals. I found that during the 24 h after wolves approached within 1 km, elk increased their rates of movement, displacement, and vigilance, but did not reduce their feeding rates or change their habitat use. The late-winter body fat and pregnancy probability of elk were not related to wolf predation risk, and were instead a function of autumn body fat and age. These findings suggest that wolves influence elk demography through direct killing, not NCEs. One of my observations - that migratory elk experienced 1-km wolf encounters only once every 9 days - suggests that the current conceptualization of risk effects, developed in smaller-scale study systems, obscures important effects of spatiotemporal scale. Next, I further explored the context-dependency of predation risk effects, evaluating the limiting role of prey body condition. Population- and community-level risk effects hinge on strong antipredator behaviors expressed by individual prey animals, but these behaviors might be limited by the countervailing influence of hunger and starvation, which can result from many biological and ecological processes that operate independently of predation risk. In a synthesis of the literature, I found that in 96% (44/46) of behavioral studies - including experiments conducted with mammals, birds, insects, fish, reptiles, and amphibians - prey body condition mediated the strength of antipredator behavior. This suggests that a predictive theory of predation risk effects can be improved by integrating the important role of individual prey condition, alongside other factors identified by prior work - such as prey social behavior, predator hunting strategy, and spatial scale. Finally, I considered the influence of human-caused ecological changes on the predation rates of the dominant elk calf predator in the GYE, the grizzly bear. Over the past two decades, the availability of key grizzly bear diet items has declined. In particular, an invasion of non-native lake trout has driven a dramatic decline of native cutthroat trout that migrate up the shallow tributaries of Yellowstone Lake to spawn each spring. I explored whether this decline has amplified the effect of the omnivorous grizzly bear on populations of migratory elk that summer inside YNP. My synthesis of research conducted over three decades on grizzly diets and elk populations, including recent study of four elk migrations, indicates that the invasion by lake trout has contributed to increased predation by grizzly bears on the calves of migratory elk. Additionally, a demographic model that incorporates two independent estimates of this increase in predation suggests that its magnitude has been sufficient to reduce the calf recruitment (4-16%) and population growth (2-11%) of migratory elk. The disruption of this important aquatic-terrestrial linkage may hinder the restoration of historic species interactions in YNP, highlighting the urgency of efforts to suppress lake trout in Yellowstone Lake and the importance of preventing such invasions elsewhere. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)
Download or read book Large Carnivore Conservation written by Susan G. Clark and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2014-05-27 with total page 422 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Strategies for protecting wolves, mountain lions, and more—by taking the human species into account as well: “Very valuable.”—Journal of Wildlife Management Drawing on six case studies of wolf, grizzly bear, and mountain lion conservation in habitats stretching from the Yukon to Arizona, Large Carnivore Conservation argues that conserving and coexisting with large carnivores is as much a problem of people and governance—of reconciling diverse and sometimes conflicting values, perspectives, and organizations, and of effective decision making in the public sphere—as it is a problem of animal ecology and behavior. By adopting an integrative approach, editors Susan G. Clark and Murray B. Rutherford seek to examine and understand the interrelated development of conservation science, law, and policy, as well as how these forces play out in courts, other public institutions, and the field. In combining real-world examples with discussions of conservation and policy theory, Large Carnivore Conservation not only explains how traditional management approaches have failed to meet the needs of all parties, but also highlights examples of innovative, successful strategies and provides practical recommendations for improving future conservation efforts. “Building on decades of work, this book integrates biological knowledge with human dimensions study and charts a course for coexistence with large carnivores.”—Douglas W. Smith, Senior Wildlife Biologist, Yellowstone National Park
Download or read book Carryover Effects of Winter Feeding on Migration Habitat Selection and Foraging Ecology of Elk in Western Wyoming written by Jennifer D. Jones and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 80 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Resource distribution on ungulate seasonal ranges is commonly altered without consideration of potential carryover effects on year-round foraging strategies. Supplemental feeding of temperate ungulates is a widespread management practice that manipulates forage resources and has potential to enhance nutritional condition and influence behavior. We tested the hypothesis that winter feeding enhances the nutritional condition of migratory elk, with carryover effects that influence migration and summer foraging strategies. We used global positioning system location data and behavioral observations of 230 adult, female elk (Cervus elaphus) that used feedgrounds (n=151) or native winter range (n=79) in western Wyoming. Attendance at feedgrounds slightly enhanced the nutritional condition of fed elk, with an average of 1.22% more body fat than unfed elk. Migration behavior differed with fed elk arriving on summer range later and leaving earlier, resulting in 26 fewer days on summer range. Fed elk occupied summer ranges that were 75% smaller than unfed elk, and while resource selection was similar, fed elk showed less selection for foraging habitats and displayed a weaker fluctuation in their hourly use of forest than unfed elk. In contrast to differences found at broad scale habitat use, winter feeding did not carryover to influence fine scale time budgets of fed and unfed elk. Our findings suggest that alteration of resources, including anthropogenic manipulations, can be strong and consistent enough to generate carryover effects on the migration behavior and year-round foraging strategies of temperate, migratory ungulates with implications for management actions.
Download or read book Wild Mammals of Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park written by Steven W. Buskirk and published by Univ of California Press. This book was released on 2016-01-12 with total page 453 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Wild Mammals of Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park provides the scholar, conservationist, and interested lay reader with information on the state's 117 wild mammalian species from grizzly bears to pygmy shrews. It describes the history of mammalogy in Wyoming, the zoogeography of Wyoming mammals, and the prehistoric mammals of Wyoming. It also characterizes the habitats of Wyoming mammals and addresses the conservation and management of mammals in the region. Expanding beyond the traditional field guide, Steven W. Buskirk emphasizes taxonomic classification, geographic range, and conservation status for mammalian species. Introductory sections are provided for each order and family, and individual species accounts organize a wealth of data ranging from habitat associations to field measurements in an easy-to-use format. Featuring color species photos, continental and state-scale distribution maps, and a comprehensive bibliography with nearly 1,000 references, Wild Mammals of Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park is an indispensable resource for wildlife and conservation biologists and mammalogists working in this region.
Download or read book Neonatal Mortality of Elk in Wyoming written by Bruce L. Smith and published by Createspace Independent Pub. This book was released on 2012-08-16 with total page 40 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Public concerns over large losses of wild ungulates to predators arise when restoring large carnivore species to former locations or population densities. During the 1990s, mountain lion (Felis concolor) and grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) numbers increased in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, and gray wolves (Canis lupus) were reintroduced to the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. We investigated effects of these predators, as well as black bears (Ursus americanus) and coyotes (Canis latrans), on mortality of an abundant and increasing prey species, elk (Cervus elaphus). We captured, radio-instrumented, and monitored survival of 145 elk neonates from 3 cohorts during 1990 - 1992, and 153 neonates from 3 cohorts during 1997 - 1999 when grizzly bears and lions were likely more common than during the earlier period of study. Neonatal (birth through 31 July) mortality of elk due to predation, disease, and accidents increased from 15.2 % to 27.5% (P = 0.01). Sixty-eight percent of all mortality during 1990 - 1992 resulted from predation by black bears and coyotes, compared to 76% during 1997-1999 by black bears, coyotes, grizzly bears, and mountain lions, a non-significant difference (P = 0.49). Weight gains of calves during the first week, but not birth weights, declined from 1990 - 1992 to 1997 - 1999. April temperatures were cooler, delaying spring green-up, and elk numbers were larger during 1997 - 1999 when weight gains and survival of calves declined. Calves that died were more likely to be male, below average birth weight, and had inferior serum nutritional indices. The change in neonatal calf survival reduced the annual growth rate of the Jackson elk herd from 1.26 to 1.23, yielding a decline in the annual increment of approximately 500 animals in a preparturition herd of 11,000 elk. Changes in mid-summer calf: 100 cow ratios indicated a 39 - 45% greater decline in neonatal survival than measured among the radioed calves. We suggest increasing predation during the study was partially compensatory, given predator selection of inferior calves and increased mortality of cohorts with reduced first week growth rates. Reduced rate of first week weight gains of elk calves extended the duration of neonatal mortality by one month during 1997 - 1999, and may be as important in predisposing calves to predation and other mortality as low birth weights. Consequently, we conclude that increased predation was a proximate not an ultimate cause of declining neonatal survival during the 1990s. We recommend careful evaluation and hypothesis testing of predator effects on elk as restoration of large carnivores continues.
Download or read book Neonatal Mortality of Elk in Wyoming written by U. S. Fish U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and published by CreateSpace. This book was released on 2015-02-14 with total page 44 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Large carnivores are considered keystone species that are vital to the integrity of many ecosystems (Estes 1996, Power et al. 1996). However, restoration and recovery of large North American carnivores has been met with skepticism and resistance by some Americans, particularly those that live closest to recovery areas and feel threatened by their presence (Bath 1991, Fisher 1995, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). The most prevalent concerns are livestock depredations, financial loss to ranchers, human safety, and large losses of wild ungulate populations (Bath 1991, Braun 1991, Linnell et al. 1995, Pate et al. 1996, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). Mech (1996) noted that the debate is not about whether predators affect their prey; they do. Rather, debate continues about the degree to which predation is compensatory, regulates prey populations in combination with other factors, and how predators may shape behavior and structure of prey populations.
Download or read book Factors Influencing Elk Recruitment Across Ecotypes in the Western United States written by Paul M. Lukacs and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 698 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Ungulates are key components in ecosystems and economically important for sport and subsistence harvest. Yet the relative importance of the effects of weather conditions, forage productivity, and carnivores on ungulates are not well understood. We examined changes in elk (Cervus canadensis) recruitment (indexed as age ratios) across 7 states and 3 ecotypes in the northwestern United States during 1989-2010, while considering the effects of predator richness, forage productivity, and precipitation.Wefound a broad-scale, long-termdecrease in elk recruitment of 0.48 juveniles/100 adult females/year. Weather conditions (indexed as summer and winter precipitation) showed small, but measurable, influences on recruitment. Forage productivity on summer and winter ranges (indexed by normalized difference vegetation index [NDVI] metrics) had the strongest effect on elk recruitment relative to other factors. Relationships between forage productivity and recruitment varied seasonally and regionally. The productivity of winter habitat was more important in southern parts of the study area, whereas annual variation in productivity of summer habitat had more influence on recruitment in northern areas. Elk recruitment varied by up to 15 juveniles/100 adult females across the range of variation in forage productivity. Areas with more species of large carnivores had relatively low elk recruitment, presumably because of increased predation. Wolves (Canis lupus) were associated with a decrease of 5 juveniles/100 adult females, whereas grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) were associated with an additional decrease of 7 juveniles/100 adult females. Carnivore species can have a critical influence on ungulate recruitment because their influence rivals large ranges of variation in environmental conditions. A more pressing concern, however, stems from persistent broad-scale decreases in recruitment across the distribution of elk in the northwestern United States, irrespective of carnivore richness. Our results suggest that wildlife managers interested in improving recruitment of elk consider the combined effects of habitat and predators. Efforts to manage summer and winter ranges to increase forage productivity may have a positive effect on recruitment.
Download or read book Relative Influence of Human Harvest Carnivores and Weather on Adult Female Elk Survival Across Western North America written by Jedediah F. Brodie and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 11 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 1. Well-informed management of harvested species requires understanding how changing ecological conditions affect demography and population dynamics, information that is lacking for many species. We have limited understanding of the relative influence of carnivores, harvest, weather and forage availability on elk Cervus elaphus demography, despite the ecological and economic importance of this species. We assessed adult female survival, a key vital rate for population dynamics, from 2746 radio-collared elk in 45 populations across western North America that experience wide variation in carnivore assemblage, harvest, weather and habitat conditions. 2. Proportional hazard analysis revealed that 'baseline' (i.e. not related to human factors) mortality was higher with very high winter precipitation, particularly in populations sympatric with wolves Canis lupus. Mortality may increase via nutritional stress and heightened vulnerability to predation in snowy winters. Baseline mortality was unrelated to puma Puma concolor presence, forest cover or summer forage productivity. 3. Cause-specific mortality analyses showed that wolves and all carnivore species combined had additive effects on baseline elk mortality, but only reduced survival by 2%. When human factors were included, 'total' adult mortality was solely related to harvest; the influence of native carnivores was compensatory. Annual total mortality rates were lowest in populations sympatric with both pumas and wolves because managers reduced female harvest in areas with abundant or diverse carnivores. 4. Mortality from native carnivores peaked in late winter and early spring, while harvest-induced mortality peaked in autumn. The strong peak in harvest-induced mortality during the autumn hunting season decreased as the number of native carnivore species increased. 5. Synthesis and applications. Elevated baseline adult female elk mortality from wolves in years with high winter precipitations could affect elk abundance as winters across the western US become drier and wolves recolonize portions of the region. In the absence of human harvest, wolves had additive, although limited, effects on mortality. Altering harvest quotas is thus a strong tool for offsetting impacts of carnivore recolonization and shifting weather patterns on elk across western North America.
Download or read book The Influence of Migratory and Resident Elk Movements on Seasonal Wolf Habitat Selection and Depredation Patterns written by Abigail A. Nelson and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page 74 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Human conflict is a unique and persistent driver of management and conservation of large mammalian carnivores. Understanding these conflicts in space and time can assist in appropriate decision-making as managers seek to balance the population viability of carnivore species with management that curbs carnivore impacts on human livelihoods. The patchy distribution of prey-rich habitat across landscapes influences abundance and movements of wolves; however, many ungulate populations are partially migratory, and it is unclear how wolves respond behaviorally to the seasonal movements of migratory versus nonmigratory prey. In this context, wolf selection for prey-rich habitat can influence seasonal encounter rates and thus depredation rates on domestic livestock. In this study, conducted in northwest Wyoming, USA, we use three years of fine-scale wolf (n = 14) and elk (n = 70) movement information to evaluate the influence of elk distribution and other landscape features on wolf habitat selection and patterns of depredation on domestic livestock.
Download or read book Elk Migration Patterns and Human Activity Influence Wolf Habitat Use in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem written by Nelson Abigail A. and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 15 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Identifying the ecological dynamics underlying human-wildlife conflicts is important for the management and conservation of wildlife populations. In landscapes still occupied by large carnivores, many ungulate prey species migrate seasonally, yet little empirical research has explored the relationship between carnivore distribution and ungulate migration strategy. In this study, we evaluate the influence of elk (Cervus elaphus) distribution and other landscape features on wolf (Canis lupus) habitat use in an area of chronic wolf-livestock conflict in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, USA. Using three years of fine-scale wolf (n = 14) and elk (n = 81) movement data, we compared the seasonal habitat use of wolves in an area dominated by migratory elk with that of wolves in an adjacent area dominated by resident elk. Most migratory elk vacate the associated winter wolf territories each summer via a 40-60 km migration, whereas resident elk remain accessible to wolves year-round. We used a generalized linear model to compare the relative probability of wolf use as a function of GIS-based habitat covariates in the migratory and resident elk areas. Although wolves in both areas used elk-rich habitat all year, elk density in summer had a weaker influence on the habitat use of wolves in the migratory elk area than the resident elk area. Wolves employed a number of alternative strategies to cope with the departure of migratory elk. Wolves in the two areas also differed in their disposition toward roads. In winter, wolves in the migratory elk area used habitat close to roads, while wolves in the resident elk area avoided roads. In summer, wolves in the migratory elk area were indifferent to roads, while wolves in resident elk areas strongly avoided roads, presumably due to the location of dens and summering elk combined with different traffic levels. Study results can help wildlife managers to anticipate the movements and establishment of wolf packs as they expand into areas with migratory or resident prey populations, varying levels of human activity, and front-country rangelands with potential for conflicts with livestock.
Download or read book Strategy specific Differentiation in Response to Resources and Drivers of Spring Migration Phenology in Rocky Mountain Elk written by Storm A. Crews and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Elk (Cervus canadensis) are known to exhibit high movement strategy diversity compared to other ungulate species. Most elk populations are migratory or partially migratory, presenting unique conservation and management challenges. For example, successful maintenance of multiple seasonal ranges and connectivity between them is necessary to conserve populations with migratory behaviors. Further study of the structure and maintenance of movement strategy diversity within partially migratory populations is needed to assist management and refine fundamental ecological theory. Improved understanding of the determinants of elk migratory timing is also important, with the dynamics of significant drivers likely to shift under future climate change and anthropogenic expansion. I investigated strategy-specific environmental responses in multiple Rocky Mountain elk populations and found evidence for a differentiation in resource use and selection among sympatric individuals using differing strategies. This result suggests a potential mechanism for the reduction of intraspecific competition and heightened population densities in partially migratory herds. However, the nature and strength of differentiation was found to be context dependent. I found that elk avoid human development and seasonally select for forage quantity over quality at relatively fine scales, highlighting some consistent selection responses as well. Overall, this analysis demonstrated intrapopulation response heterogeneity in partially migratory elk populations and characterized strategy-specific patterns of resource use and selection. I investigated how spring migratory timing and duration relate to spatiotemporal forage dynamics, finding that departure dates are affected by vegetative green-up along migratory corridors, while the duration of migration is influenced by the timing of green-up at the summer range. These results highlight a form of migratory plasticity, wherein migrants modulate both their departure date and the duration of their migration as a function of vegetative phenology. Additionally, I present a framework to quantify optimality of migratory movements in relation to peak forage conditions. On average, elk were found to exhibit high optimality, with interindividual variability along a gradient. My findings suggest a variety of responses to green-wave phenology, with optimality of movements differing as a function of individual and study area. This work contributes to the growing understanding of migratory plasticity as multidimensional and highlights the variability of migratory behavior within and among populations.
Download or read book Influence of Beetle killed Forests on Elk and Hunter Habitat Selection and Interactions written by Bryan G. Lamont and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 83 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Forests of the Rocky Mountains (USA and Canada) have experienced a large-scale bark-beetle epidemic that has led to widespread mortality of pine trees, followed by dramatic structural and compositional changes to the forest. The millions of dead trees resulting from this event likely have an effect on ecosystem processes, but currently those effects are mostly unclear. Changes to forest canopy and understory structure are likely to affect behavior and space use of large ungulates as forage abundance, thermal cover, and locomotive costs are presumably altered. We developed and tested hypotheses for how resource selection in summer of female elk (Cervus canadensis), the primary large mammal in our study area, was influenced by changes in canopy, understory vegetation and downed logs in bark-beetle affected forest in south-central Wyoming. Additionally, we assessed how the movements of elk hunters and their interactions with elk were influenced by beetle-killed forest during elk hunting seasons. We employed global positioning system (GPS) technology, an imagery-derived land cover classification specifically depicting beetle-affected forest, and on-the-ground forest measurements to develop resource and step selection functions. At the study area scale during the summer, elk avoided beetle-killed forest during nearly all parts of the day and selected for intact conifer forest during the day. At the micro-habitat scale during the summer, as canopy cover decreased in beetle-killed forest, there was a concomitant increase in grass biomass and downed logs. Nevertheless, while in the forest, elk did not alter resource selection relative to changes in understory vegetation or downed logs. Elk increased use of beetle-kill during hunting seasons as did hunters during the archery season, however during the rifle season, hunters avoided beetle-kill. Nevertheless, during the rifle season, areas of beetle-kill with a high probability of elk occurrence dampened the aversion hunters had towards beetle-kill. Therefore, in contrast to our expectations, forests that have been severely altered by the bark-beetle epidemic may only function marginally as a refuge for elk. The bark-beetle epidemic has not only altered how elk use the landscape during the summer, but also has resulted in a potential loss of forest habitat that elk use during the day. Moreover, rifle hunters seem to limit their use of beetle-killed forest and as more standing dead trees fall this trend may be further exacerbated. Our results indicate that habitat treatments (i.e., fire, or harvest) that remove standing dead trees and downed logs in beetle-killed forest would facilitate additional understory growth (i.e., forage for elk) while reducing locomotion costs for elk and hunters.
Download or read book Yellowstone Wolves written by Douglas W. Smith and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2020-12-28 with total page 358 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This beautifully illustrated volume on the Yellowstone Wolf Project includes an introduction by Jane Goodall and an exclusive online documentary. The reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park was one of the greatest wildlife conservation achievements of the twentieth century. Eradicated after the park was first established, these iconic carnivores returned in 1995 when the US government reversed its century-old policy of extermination. In the intervening decades, scientists have built a one-of-a-kind field study of these wolves, their behaviors, and their influence on the entire ecosystem. Yellowstone Wolves tells the incredible story of the Yellowstone Wolf Project, as told by the people behind it. This wide-ranging volume highlights what has been learned in the decades since reintroduction, as well as the unique blend of research techniques used to gain this knowledge. We learn about individual wolves, population dynamics, wolf-prey relationships, genetics, disease, management and policy, and the rippling ecosystem effects wolves have had on Yellowstone’s wild and rare landscape. Featuring a foreword by Jane Goodall, beautiful images, a companion online documentary by celebrated filmmaker Bob Landis, and contributions from more than seventy wolf and wildlife conservation luminaries from Yellowstone and around the world, Yellowstone Wolves is an informative and beautifully realized celebration of the extraordinary Yellowstone Wolf Project.
Download or read book Yellowstone Grizzly Bears written by Daniel D. Bjornlie and published by National Park Service Yellowstone National Park. This book was released on 2017 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Yellowstone Bison written by Patrick James White and published by . This book was released on 2015-05 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Vicious written by Jon T. Coleman and published by Yale University Press. This book was released on 2008-10-01 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Over a continent and three centuries, American livestock owners destroyed wolves to protect the beasts that supplied them with food, clothing, mobility, and wealth. The brutality of the campaign soon exceeded wolves’ misdeeds. Wolves menaced property, not people, but storytellers often depicted the animals as ravenous threats to human safety. Subjects of nightmares and legends, wolves fell prey not only to Americans’ thirst for land and resources but also to their deeper anxieties about the untamed frontier. Now Americans study and protect wolves and jail hunters who shoot them without authorization. Wolves have become the poster beasts of the great American wilderness, and the federal government has paid millions of dollars to reintroduce them to scenic habitats like Yellowstone National Park. Why did Americans hate wolves for centuries? And, given the ferocity of this loathing, why are Americans now so protective of the animals? In this ambitious history of wolves in America—and of the humans who have hated and then loved them—Jon Coleman investigates a fraught relationship between two species and uncovers striking similarities, deadly differences, and, all too frequently, tragic misunderstanding.
Download or read book An Ecological Characterization of Rocky Mountain Montane and Subalpine Wetlands written by and published by . This book was released on 1986 with total page 348 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
