Download or read book Characterization and Prediction of Lithium Plating Due to Fast charging of Li ion Batteries written by Polina Brodsky and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As demand for sustainable and clean transportation continues to increase, matching the refueling capabilities of Electric Vehicles (EVs) to conventional vehicles is a major research and development challenge. To accelerate the adoption of EVs, higher power fast charging must be implemented. Currently, fast charging a battery pack presents several barriers, primarily with respect to cell longevity and safety. One of the main durability issues is caused by lithium plating, a degradation phenomenon that may occur when charging a cell at high C-rate or low temperature conditions. Plating can significantly reduce a cell cycle life and poses serious safety concerns due to potential thermal runaway from internal shorting. For these reasons, it is important to predict the root causes and mechanisms associated to Li-plating and mitigate its effects to prevent the chemical and mechanical degradation of cells during fast charging. This Dissertation seeks to develop physics-based modeling techniques and integrate them with novel experimental testing procedures to predict the cell behavior associated with lithium plating. Fast charge testing was performed with the goal of measuring cell behavior at different conditions by varying charging C-rate, cutoff current, and temperature. The results of this investigation were used to develop a method to detect the onset of lithium plating using specific indicators of the reaction in the collected data. Starting from the test results, a physics-based model predicting the degradation induced by fast charging was created and integrated into two different electrochemical models. In doing so, the specific problem of improving the accuracy of electrochemical models in predicting the cell voltage response during fast charging conditions was investigated. The methods developed in this Dissertation for integrating physics-based models and experimental analysis provide fundamental guidance to conduct a thorough investigation into the factors that govern the onset of plating, as well as provide quantitative information on the effects caused by this phenomenon.

Download or read book Detection and characterization of Lithium plating written by Long, Julian and published by Universitätsverlag der TU Berlin. This book was released on 2023-05-31 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Lithium plating is not only the most severe ageing mechanism in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) but also becoming more and more important due the increasing presence of electric vehicles (EVs). In EVs the extreme conditions causing lithium plating, like very high charging currents and low environment temperatures, are much more prevalent than in consumer electronics. Due to the high number of factors that influence the plating process, ranging from the cell geometry to the chemical composition of the electrolyte, a deeper understanding of the plating process is still lacking. Without this knowledge it is hard to design cells in a plating resistant way, or to operate cells under the ideal conditions to minimize plating. This thesis aims at showing different methods to investigate the plating process on three different levels. The first method is on the cell level, investigating the behaviour of the whole cell during plating. It contains the analysis of the voltage and current profiles that show an atypical behaviour during plating. The focus of the analysis is on the current profile of the constant voltage (CV) phase during charging under low temperature conditions leading to plating. This current profile can be fitted with the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) function that describes the electrochemical deposition process of a metallic species on a surface. The resulting fitting parameters can be utilized to characterize the plating behaviour of the cell as well as better estimate the amount of plated lithium than commonly used methods. It can also potentially predict the future safety risk due to dendrite formation. In the second part the chemical composition of the surface electrolyte interface (SEI) is investigated using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The composition as well as the mechanical properties of the SEI are strongly influencing the plating process and preliminary work has shown that plating is also changing the morphology of the SEI and increasing its thickness drastically. Cells under different conditions (plated, charged and discharged) as well as cells of different manufacturers have been probed using XPS. During the measurements an unwanted side effect of the experimental setup was discovered that lead to a migration of lithium to the surface of the sample and was distorting the measurement results. Regardless of the effect, it was possible to see that the SEI can have a very different composition in cells of different manufacturers and that plating not only changes the morphology but also the composition of the SEI. The unwanted side effect could furthermore be utilized to identify samples that were plated recently and could be used in further more controlled experiments to localize lithium depositions on plated samples. In the last part the particle structure of the anode surface of cells of different manufacturers was investigated using a watershed particle detection algorithm on laser scanning microscopy (LSM) images of the anode surfaces. The distributions of the particle sizes have then been compared to the capacity loss in plated cells. It was shown that the capacity loss correlates with parameters extracted from the particle size distributions. It is however necessary to create more data to verify this correlation. In summary this thesis utilized new methods to detect or characterize plating on different levels of magnification, from the cell level to the chemical composition. New approaches were found to predict a cells future plating behaviour, spatially localize plated areas on the anode and design cells in a plating resistant way. Lithium Plating ist nicht nur der Alterungsmechanismus in Lithium-Ionen-Batterien mit dem größten Kapazitätsverlust, sondern wird auch im Zuge der voranschreitenden Elektrifizierung des Personenverkehrs immer wichtiger. In Elektrofahrzeugen finden sich die extremen Zustände, wie niedrige Ladetemperaturen und hohe Ladestrome, unter denen Plating auftritt, deutlich häufiger als in Unterhaltungstechnik. Durch die Vielzahl von Parametern, von der Zellgeometrie bis hin zur Elektrolyzusammensetzung, die Plating beeinflussen, fehlt immer noch ein tieferes Verständnis des Plating-Prozesses. Ohne dieses Wissen ist es schwer, Zellen zu designen, die resistent gegen Plating sind oder Zellen unter optimalen Bedingungen zu betreiben um Plating zu minimieren. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, verschiedene Methoden aufzuzeigen, die die Untersuchung von Plating auf drei verschiedenen Ebenen ermöglichen. Die erste Methode untersucht das Gesamtverhalten der Zelle auf Zellebene. Hierbei wird das atypische Verhalten der Strom- und Spannunsprofile wahrend des Plating-Vorgangs analysiert. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf der Untersuchung der Konstantstrom-Phase bei niedrigen Temperaturen während der Ladung. Das Stromprofil dieser Phase kann mit der JMAK-Funktion gefittet werden, welche die elektrochemische Abscheidung eines Metalls auf einer Oberfläche beschreibt. Die resultierenden Fitting-Parameter können genutzt werden, um das Plating-Verhalten vorherzusagen und sind gleichzeitig eine bessere Abschätzung fur die Menge an geplatetem Lithium im Vergleich zu gängigen Methoden. Die Ergebnisse konnten außerdem helfen das Sicherheitsrisiko der Zelle bei Dendritenbildung vorherzusagen. Im zweiten Teil wird die chemische Zusammensetzung der SEI mittels XPS untersucht. Die Zusammensetzung, wie auch die mechanischen Eigenschaften der SEI, beeinflussen den Plating-Prozess stark und es wurde in vorhergehenden Arbeiten gezeigt, dass Plating auch die Morphologie und Dicke der SEI drastisch verändern kann. Zellen in verschiedenen Zuständen (geplatet, geladen, entladen), sowie Zellen verschiedener Hersteller wurden mit XPS untersucht. Während der Messungen wurde ein ungewollter Nebeneffekt des Messaufbaus entdeckt, der zu einer Migration von Lithium an die Oberflache der Proben geführt und die Messergebnisse verfälscht hat. Unabhängig von diesem Effekt war es dennoch möglich, zu zeigen, dass die SEI in Zellen verschiedener Hersteller stark unterschiedliche Zusammensetzungen haben kann und dass Plating nicht nur die Morphologie der SEI beeinflusst, sondern auch die chemische Zusammensetzung. Weiterhin konnte der ungewollte Nebeneffekt verwendet werden, um Proben zu identifizieren, die vor kurzem geplatet wurden und konnte in zukünftigen Arbeiten verwendet werden, um lokalisiert Lithium-Ablagerungen auf geplateten Proben zu identifizieren. Im letzten Teil wurde die Partikelstruktur der Anoden von Zellen verschiedener Zellhersteller mit Hilfe einer watershed-Partikeldetektion an LSM-Bildern untersucht. Die Verteilung der Partikelgrößen wurde mit dem Kapazitätsverlust gleicher Zelle durch Plating verglichen. Es wurde gezeigt, dass der Kapazitätsverlust mit Parametern, die aus den Partikelverteilungen extrahiert wurden, korreliert. Ein größerer Datensatz ist jedoch notwendig, um diese Ergebnisse zu validieren. Zusammenfassend hat diese Arbeit verschiedene neue Methoden aufgezeigt, um Plating auf verschiedenen Vergrößerungsebenen zu detektieren und zu charakterisieren. Neue Ansätze wurden gefunden, um das Platingverhalten von Zellen vorherzusagen, lokalisiertes Lithium auf der Oberfläche zu detektieren und Zellen platingresistenter designen zu können.

Download or read book Physics based Modeling of Lithium Plating and Dendrite Growth for Prediction of Extreme Fast charging written by Matthew J. Wise and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Department of Energy has prioritized extreme fast charging (XFC) for customer adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs). Range anxiety is a major public concern when purchasing an EV, so comparable refueling time to conventional vehicles is highly sought after. There are multiple barriers to achieving XFC at all levels: infrastructure, vehicle systems, and battery cell. A major concern is on a cell degradation phenomenon known as lithium plating, a side reaction that is favored at high C-rates and low temperatures. Lithium plating can significantly reduce the cell capacity and can also pose serious safety concerns due to potential internal shorting and thermal runaway. For these reasons, accurate prediction of the physical mechanisms related to plating is extremely important and can be used to mitigate effects and prevent occurrence of plating during charging. This work is focused on developing physics-based modeling techniques and integrating them with experimental testing to predict the cell behavior associated with lithium plating. Fast charge testing was performed at various charging C-rates using different charging methods (CC vs. CC-CV). Reference Performance Tests (RPTs) were conducted between each fast charge cycle to track cell performance after lithium plating. The collected data was used to calibrate a pre-existing lithium plating model within a DFN electrochemical model. After calibration, specific issues with prediction in voltage degradation and capacity loss were addressed. Using differential capacity analysis of the RPTs, different aging effects onset by lithium plating were identified, showing both a loss of cyclable lithium (LCL) and a loss of anode active material (LAM). Optimization of electrochemical model parameters to RPT data confirms this and provides ideal changes in capacity related parameters after each fast charge cycle. A new model was then developed to attribute the LAM to dendrite growth behavior, which relies on results from phase-field theory to model the isolation of the active material surface sites caused by the growth of dendrites. The addition of this model, combined with RPT data analysis and electrochemical model optimization has produced a plating model calibration procedure that can accurately predict degradation in cell performance due to lithium plating.

Download or read book Characterization and Analysis of Lithium Plating on Silicon graphite Negative Electrodes in Lithium Ion Batteries written by Marius Flügel and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Laser Structuring of Graphite Anodes for Functionally Enhanced Lithium Ion Batteries written by Jan Bernd Habedank and published by utzverlag GmbH. This book was released on 2022-01-21 with total page 204 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Enabling Fast Charging in Lithium ion Batteries written by Srishti Mittal and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This thesis presents a novel method for onboard detection of lithium plating in lithium-ion batteries by combining machine learning (ML) techniques with differential pressure sensing. The study aims to address the challenge of lithium plating, which can lead to capacity fade and cell failure, particularly during fast charging. By measuring the pressure changes during charging and discharging, differential pressure (dP/dQ) can serve as a binary classifier for lithium plating detection. While such detection methods are limited by their invasiveness or specialized equipment requirements, we can overcome these limitations through the proposed approach that utilizes ML models to predict the differential pressure (dP/dQ) signal associated with lithium plating. The best regression model achieved an accuracy of 97.75% on the test set, providing an accurate means of calculating dP/dQ without the need for load cells or external pressure sensors. The study also analyzes the feature importance of the model, revealing key factors influencing the prediction, such as cycling protocol, phase transitions, and battery health. Although further refinement is needed, this research offers a promising avenue for real-time lithium plating detection in LIBs, facilitating safer and more efficient battery management.

Download or read book The Carbon Electrode written by and published by . This book was released on 1922 with total page 86 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Computational Electrochemistry written by S. Paddison and published by The Electrochemical Society. This book was released on 2015-12-28 with total page 49 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Fast Charging of High energy Lithium ion Batteries Via Thermal Stimulation written by Teng Liu and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This dissertation reveals how would thermal stimulation method enhance the fast-charging capability of Li-ion batteries (LiBs) and demonstrate durable, 10~15 minutes fast charging for high energy LiBs. The main challenge of enabling fast charging high-energy LiBs is how to break through the trade-offs between energy density, rate capability, and cycle life. On the one hand, some high-power batteries could be charged within 10 minutes, while the energy density will be severely undermined. On the other, it usually takes hours to charge the high-energy batteries to meet industrially acceptable cycle numbers. In this study, starting from the most common commercial LiBs with layered oxide cathode (LiNi1-X-YMnXCoYO2) and graphite (Gr) anode, it is demonstrated that the thermal stimulation method can effectively boost the rate capability of the batteries and achieve thousands of fast-charging cycles. In an attempt to unravel the phenomena underpinning the degradation of high-energy LiBs under fast charging, we tested LiBs with different areal loadings and developed a numerical model to predict the fast-charging performance under different thermal conditions. Specifically: Chapter 2 introduces how to design a thermal stimulation protocol to achieve fast charging and why it works. For electric vehicle (EV) batteries that undergo fast charging, the difference between their charging and discharging currents can reach an order of magnitude or more. In order to cope with the highly asymmetrical current profiles, we propose an asymmetric temperature modulate (ATM) method, which thermally stimulates the batteries to elevated temperatures during fast charging and keeps the batteries around the ambient temperature for the rest of the time. Using the ATM method, we demonstrated that commercial LiBs that can only survive 60 fast-charging cycles at room temperature could last for thousands of cycles with proper thermal modulation. Chapter 3 looks into the challenges when fast charging high-energy LiBs and demonstrates how to overcome the trade-offs between fast-charging performance and energy density. State-of-the-art (SoA) high-energy batteries use thick electrodes to increase the specific energy. When using the ATM method to charge LiBs with high areal capacities, capacity rollover could happen even with small capacity retention, causing short cycle life. To overcome the mass transport limitation caused by thick electrodes, we adopted an electrolyte with a higher transference number and increased the porosity of the negative electrodes. The high-energy LiB (263 Wh/kg) with enhanced ion transport could withstand 4C charging and last for more than 2,000 cycles without capacity rollover. Chapter 4 discusses the interplay between thermal management and the fast-charging performance with an electrochemical-thermal (ECT) coupled model. Besides minimizing lithium plating, it is also favorable to elevate the battery temperature during fast charging in consideration of thermal management. Elevating the charging temperature from 30°C to 60°C will reduce the average heat generation rate by more than three times. Moreover, if we allow the battery temperature to increase during fast charging, the cooling needs and the temperature variation inside the battery could be further reduced. Chapter 5 shows how to implement a feasible design for urban air mobility (UAM) using fast charging LiBs. The battery pack for electric aircraft should be light-weighted; by using fast-charging LiBs, we can adopt a smaller battery pack and charge it more frequently. We designed a cycling protocol for short-range electric vertical take-off and landing aircraft (eVTOL). The battery could be recharged in 5 minutes after each 50-mile (80-km) trip and demonstrated remarkable cycle life with the ATM method. Chapter 6 concludes the dissertation and proposes possible advancements in the future.

Download or read book Characterization and Prevention of Failure Modes of Lithium Polymer and Lithium Ion Batteries in Transportation Applications written by Karim Zaghib and published by The Electrochemical Society. This book was released on 2007-11 with total page 109 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The papers included in this issue of ECS Transactions were originally presented in the symposium ¿Characterization and Prevention of Failure Modes of Lithium Polymer and Lithium Ion Batteries in Transportation Applications¿, held during the 211th meeting of The Electrochemical Society, in Chicago, IL.

Download or read book Rechargeable Lithium Batteries written by Alejandro Franco and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2015-04-07 with total page 413 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Rechargeable Lithium Batteries: From Fundamentals to Application provides an overview of rechargeable lithium batteries, from fundamental materials, though characterization and modeling, to applications. The market share of lithium ion batteries is fast increasing due to their high energy density and low maintenance requirements. Lithium air batteries have the potential for even higher energy densities, a requirement for the development of electric vehicles, and other types of rechargeable lithium battery are also in development. After an introductory chapter providing an overview of the main scientific and technological challenges posed by rechargeable Li batteries, Part One of this book reviews materials and characterization of rechargeable lithium batteries. Part Two covers performance and applications, discussing essential aspects such as battery management, battery safety and emerging rechargeable lithium battery technologies as well as medical and aerospace applications. - Expert overview of the main scientific and technological challenges posed by rechargeable lithium batteries - Address the important topics of analysis, characterization, and modeling in rechargeable lithium batteries - Key analysis of essential aspects such as battery management, battery safety, and emerging rechargeable lithium battery technologies

Download or read book Fast Charging Strategies in Lithium ion Batteries written by Upender Rao Koleti and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Lithium Batteries written by Bruno Scrosati and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2013-06-18 with total page 495 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Explains the current state of the science and points the way to technological advances First developed in the late 1980s, lithium-ion batteries now power everything from tablet computers to power tools to electric cars. Despite tremendous progress in the last two decades in the engineering and manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries, they are currently unable to meet the energy and power demands of many new and emerging devices. This book sets the stage for the development of a new generation of higher-energy density, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries by advancing battery chemistry and identifying new electrode and electrolyte materials. The first chapter of Lithium Batteries sets the foundation for the rest of the book with a brief account of the history of lithium-ion battery development. Next, the book covers such topics as: Advanced organic and ionic liquid electrolytes for battery applications Advanced cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries Metal fluorosulphates capable of doubling the energy density of lithium-ion batteries Efforts to develop lithium-air batteries Alternative anode rechargeable batteries such as magnesium and sodium anode systems Each of the sixteen chapters has been contributed by one or more leading experts in electrochemistry and lithium battery technology. Their contributions are based on the latest published findings as well as their own firsthand laboratory experience. Figures throughout the book help readers understand the concepts underlying the latest efforts to advance the science of batteries and develop new materials. Readers will also find a bibliography at the end of each chapter to facilitate further research into individual topics. Lithium Batteries provides electrochemistry students and researchers with a snapshot of current efforts to improve battery performance as well as the tools needed to advance their own research efforts.

Download or read book Electrochemical Power Sources Fundamentals Systems and Applications written by Jürgen Garche and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2018-09-20 with total page 671 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Safety of Lithium Batteries describes how best to assure safety during all phases of the life of Lithium ion batteries (production, transport, use, and disposal). About 5 billion Li-ion cells are produced each year, predominantly for use in consumer electronics. This book describes how the high-energy density and outstanding performance of Li-ion batteries will result in a large increase in the production of Li-ion cells for electric drive train vehicle (xEV) and battery energy storage (BES or EES) purposes. The high-energy density of Li battery systems comes with special hazards related to the materials employed in these systems. The manufacturers of cells and batteries have strongly reduced the hazard probability by a number of measures. However, absolute safety of the Li system is not given as multiple incidents in consumer electronics have shown. - Presents the relationship between chemical and structure material properties and cell safety - Relates cell and battery design to safety as well as system operation parameters to safety - Outlines the influences of abuses on safety and the relationship to battery testing - Explores the limitations for transport and storage of cells and batteries - Includes recycling, disposal and second use of lithium ion batteries

Download or read book Lithium Ion Batteries Basics and Applications written by Reiner Korthauer and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-08-07 with total page 417 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The handbook focuses on a complete outline of lithium-ion batteries. Just before starting with an exposition of the fundamentals of this system, the book gives a short explanation of the newest cell generation. The most important elements are described as negative / positive electrode materials, electrolytes, seals and separators. The battery disconnect unit and the battery management system are important parts of modern lithium-ion batteries. An economical, faultless and efficient battery production is a must today and is represented with one chapter in the handbook. Cross-cutting issues like electrical, chemical, functional safety are further topics. Last but not least standards and transportation themes are the final chapters of the handbook. The different topics of the handbook provide a good knowledge base not only for those working daily on electrochemical energy storage, but also to scientists, engineers and students concerned in modern battery systems.

Download or read book Lithium Metal Anodes and Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries written by Ji-Guang Zhang and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-10-06 with total page 206 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides comprehensive coverage of Lithium (Li) metal anodes for rechargeable batteries. Li is an ideal anode material for rechargeable batteries due to its extremely high theoretical specific capacity (3860 mAh g-1), low density (0.59 g cm-3), and the lowest negative electrochemical potential (−3.040 V vs. standard hydrogenelectrodes). Unfortunately, uncontrollable dendritic Li growth and limited Coulombic efficiency during Li deposition/stripping inherent in these batteries have prevented their practical applications over the past 40 years. With the emergence of post Liion batteries, safe and efficient operation of Li metal anodes has become an enabling technology which may determine the fate of several promising candidates for the next generation energy storage systems, including rechargeable Li-air batteries, Li-S batteries, and Li metal batteries which utilize intercalation compounds as cathodes. In this work, various factors that affect the morphology and Coulombic efficiency of Li anodes are analyzed. The authors also present the technologies utilized to characterize the morphology of Li deposition and the results obtained by modeling of Li dendrite growth. Finally, recent developments, especially the new approaches that enable safe and efficient operation of Li metal anodes at high current densities are reviewed. The urgent need and perspectives in this field are also discussed. The fundamental understanding and approaches presented in this work will be critical for the applicationof Li metal anodes. The general principles and approaches can also be used in other metal electrodes and general electrochemical deposition of metal films.

Download or read book Implications of Rapid Charging and Chemo Mechanical Degradation in Lithium Ion Battery Electrodes written by Mohammed Fouad Hasan and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Li-ion batteries, owing to their unique characteristics with high power and energy density, are broadly considered a leading candidate for vehicle electrification. A pivotal performance drawback of the Li-ion batteries manifests in the lengthy charging time and the limited cycle life. Fast charging is one of the most desired characteristics for the emerging vehicle technologies, which is at a nascent stage and not well understood. Moreover, cycle life is a vital component of battery integration and market penetration. The objectives of this work include: (1) investigating the fast charging induced performance limitations with emphasis on temperature extremes; and (2) studying the implications of combined chemical and mechanical degradation modes on the battery cycle life. In this work, a coupled electrochemical-thermal model is utilized to study the internal behavior and thermal interactions during fast charging process. Additionally, the cycle life predictions are realized by developing a capacity fade model consisting of a coupled chemical (irreversible solid electrolyte interface formation) and mechanical (intercalation induced damage) degradation formalism with thermal effect. Primary results with conventional protocol at high rate (3C) show that at moderate and high operating temperatures the main performance limitations of fast charging originate from lithium ion transport in the electrolyte and ohmic resistance. However, charge transfer resistance is found to be the limiting mechanism for the conventional 1C charging rate at low temperatures. Furthermore, it was found that the concentration build-up at anode surface can be effectively manipulated by using an appropriate charging protocol such as pulse charging and boostcharging. However, it was concluded that at low temperatures, a successful charging protocol is achieved by utilizing the principle of thermal excitement. For battery cycle life, results show that mechanical degradation is the predominant mechanism for capacity fade at low temperatures and high rates. However, the temperature as a stress factor is the principle capacity fade source at high operating temperatures where mechanical degradation is not prominent. The importance of cooling condition, particle size and the exchange current density on life cycle have been emphasized. Finally, a degradation phase map that shows the significance of active particle size and stress factors (temperature and current rate) on the capacity fade is presented. It is concluded that the particle size showed a trade-off in the capacity fade results at different temperatures. The electronic version of this dissertation is accessible from http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/152626