Download or read book Variable Speed Limit Control to Mitigate Freeway Congestion written by Md Hadiuzzaman and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 239 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Over the past few decades, several active traffic control methods have been developed and implemented to mitigate freeway congestion. Among them, Variable Speed Limit (VSL) is considered the most efficient control method. In addition, the latest advances in Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) have made it feasible to implement predictive freeway control. The successful implementation of such control requires an accurate macroscopic traffic flow model that can predict all the important traffic dynamics. To avoid violation of the equilibrium traffic state assumption and to improve traffic state prediction accuracy in the VSL control situation, this research proposes a 2nd order model, DynaTAM-VSL, which drops parameterization of the METANET's FD; instead, it includes speed limit-dependent parameters in the speed and density dynamics. The validation results with the 20-s loop detector data confirmed that, compared to the existing models, the proposed model better simulates traffic flow. With the validated model, this research investigates the impact of control parameters and demand levels on total travel time and throughput under the coordinated VSL control and determined a range of the demand / bottleneck capacity ratio, when VSL simultaneously improves both of the mobility parameters, which resolved the existing paradoxical results. This research also proposes an isolated VSL control strategy that aims at avoiding capacity drop at recurrent freeway bottlenecks. To evaluate the effectiveness of the control strategy, a base model of the 11-km test site: Whitemud Drive (WMD), Edmonton is calibrated within a microscopic traffic flow simulator to reproduce real-world traffic conditions, while the control strategy is implemented to evaluate its impact. The sensitivity analysis of the control strategy on safety constraints and VSL update frequencies demonstrates promising results to support practical implementation. Considering its flexible use in macroscopic simulation, a 1st order traffic flow model, CTM-VSL, is proposed. Unlike the 2nd order models, it is parsimonious: it only includes parameters that can be estimated using routinely available point detector data. However, the model is valid only for the condition of perfect compliance by drivers to VSL control, since it shares same properties of the CTM model. To update the storage capacity of an upstream segment of a VSL sign, a real-time queue estimation model is proposed. Despite the simple structure of the CTM-VSL model, the VSL control shows comparable results with the DynaTAM-VSL in terms of improving mobility parameters. Finally, this research distinguishes the relative contributions of driver compliance levels (CLs) and a predictive VSL control with different CLs to improve traffic flows. Several CL-to-VSL strategies are modeled with a fixed co-efficient of variance of speeds obtained from static speed limit on WMD. The CLs include speed distributions for aggressive, compliant, and defensive drivers. It is proven that the mobility benefits from the VSL control are not at the expense of increased collision probability and vice-versa.

Download or read book Using Connected Vehicles in Variable Speed Limit Systems written by Ellen F. Grumert and published by Linköping University Electronic Press. This book was released on 2018-04-10 with total page 93 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Motorway traffic management systems are useful for improving the traffic conditions on urban motorways. One of the most common motorway traffic management systems are variable speed limit systems. These systems adapt the speed limits based on the prevailing traffic conditions measured by roadside detectors and recommended or compulsory speed limits are shown on variable message signs installed on gantries over the road.Thesystems consist of three parts; the control algorithm used to determine which speed limit to be displayed, a method for estimating the traffic conditions to be used as input for the control algorithm and the infrastructure for application of the variable speed limits. The goal of the systems is often to increase safety or efficiency. Recent development in the field of connected vehicles have opened up for a new type of data source, as the status of a connected vehicle and its surroundings can be communicated at arbitrary locations. Hence, by the use of connected vehicles in variable speed limit systems there is a potential of reducing the amount of roadside equipment. It is even possible to control the connected vehicles towards the current speed limit without the use of variable message signs. This allows for the application of variable speed limits at arbitrary locations. The aim of this thesis is to examine how connected vehicles can be used to improve the efficiency of variable speed limit systems. The thesis contribute with new and improved methods using connected vehicles in all three parts of a variable speed limit system. The suggested methods are evaluated by microscopic traffic simulation. The overall conclusion is that the use of connected vehicles in variable speed limit systems can contribute to improvements in traffic efficiency compared to existing systems. The six papers included in the thesis can be summarized as follows. First, it is shown that traditional variable speed limit systems can be effective for improving the traffic conditions on the motorway and the results can be comparable to more costly alterations by reconstruction of the infrastructure to increase the capacity. Next, the usefulness of connected vehicles for application and control of the speed limits in an existing variable speed limit system is investigated. It is concluded that the design of the control algorithm and the accuracy of the estimated traffic conditions have a great effect on the final outcome of the system. The design of the control algorithm is then examined by evaluation of a number of control algorithms with respect to safety, efficiency and environmental impacts. The main benefits and drawbacks of the algorithms are highlighted and desirable characteristics to include when designing a control algorithm are identified. In two studies, methods making use of connected vehicles for estimating the traffic conditions are proposed. The results show that connected vehicles are useful for improving the accuracy of the estimated traffic conditions through the inclusion of more detailed information and information at locations where detector measurements are not available. Finally, a variable speed limit system is proposed in which connected vehicles play a central role in the estimation of the traffic conditions, as well as in the control algorithm and for application of the speed limit. The system is shown to be useful for improving traffic efficiency during an incident at an arbitrary location along the controlled road.

Download or read book Model Predictive Control for Integrating Traffic Control Measures written by András Hegyi and published by . This book was released on 2003 with total page 236 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Investigation of Solutions to Recurring Congestion on Freeways written by Nicholas J. Mazzenga and published by . This book was released on 2009 with total page 42 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Persistent daily congestion, which has been increasing in recent years, is commonly experienced for several hours or more during the morning and evening on Virginia's urban freeways. Many of these roadways are at or near capacity, which causes severe delays and backups. One solution to reducing recurring congestion is to add capacity by building more lanes; however, this is usually the last resort as it is an expensive and time-consuming approach. Another strategy proposed to combat recurring congestion is to manage the current freeways so that they operate more efficiently. Reducing congestion through better managed freeways has numerous documented benefits, including reducing travel times, smoothing the traffic flow, increasing average fuel economy, shortening the rush hour period and reducing vehicle queuing. The highway operational strategies implemented to reduce recurring congestion have shown promising results abroad where there is an extensive use of active traffic management systems. To prove the effectiveness of a better managed freeway in mitigating recurring congestion, this study tested the effectiveness of an active traffic management system on a simulated model of I-66 and I-95 in Northern Virginia. Hard shoulders, variable speed limits, and ramp metering are several active traffic management systems simulated in this study. The simulation model was based on the geometric characteristics, ramp volumes, vehicle flows, and speeds of actual recorded conditions. Compared with the simulated control conditions, the results of the study indicated improvements in average fuel economy, travel delay, delay of the onset of congestion, and reduction of queues. The two active traffic management systems, i.e., variable speed limits and hard shoulders, showed the highest potential for reducing recurring congestion and should be considered as potential countermeasures in congested corridors. Although the capital costs of implementing these strategies would be high, the return on investment in the first year of operations is estimated at $500,000, with the potential to grow to as much as $8 million annually in subsequent years.

Download or read book Modeling Present and Future Freeway Management Strategies Variable Speed Limits Lane changing and Platooning of Connected Autonomous Vehicles written by Marcel Sala Sanmartí and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 292 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Freeway traffic management is necessary to improve capacity and reduce congestion, especially in metropolitan freeways where the rush period lasts several hours per day. Traffic congestion implies delays and an increase in air pollutant emissions, both with harmful effects to society. Active management strategies imply regulating traffic demand and improving freeway capacity. While both aspects are necessary, the present thesis only addresses the supply side.Part of the research in traffic flow theory is grounded on empirical data. Today, in order to extend our knowledge on traffic dynamics, detailed and high-quality data is needed. To that end, the thesis presents a pioneering data collection campaign, which was developed in a freeway accessing Barcelona. In a Variable Speed Limits (VSL) environment, different speed limits where posted, in order to observe their real and detailed effects on traffic. All the installed surveillance instruments were set to capture data in the highest possible level of detail, including video recordings, from where to count lane-changing maneuvers. With this objective, a semi-automatic method to reliably count lane changes form video recordings was developed and is presented in the thesis.Data analysis proved that the speed limit fulfillment was only relevant in sections with enforcement devices. In these sections, it is confirmed that, the lower the speed limit, the higher the occupancy to achieve a given flow. In contrast, the usually assumed mainline metering effect of low speed limits was not relevant. This might be different in case of stretch enforcement. These findings mean that, on the one hand, VSL strategies aiming to restrict the mainline flow on a freeway by using low speed limits will need to be applied carefully, avoiding conditions as the ones presented here. On the other hand, VSL strategies trying to get the most from the increased vehicle storage capacity of freeways under low speed limits might be rather promising.Results also show that low speed limits increase the speed differences across lanes for moderate demands. This, in turn, also increases the lane changing rates. In contrast, lower speed limits widen the range of flows under uniform lane flow distributions, so that, even for moderate to low demands, the under-utilization of any lane can be avoided. Further analysis of lane-changing activity allowed unveiling that high lane-changing rates prevent achieving the highest flows. This inverse relationship is modeled in the thesis using a stochastic model based on Bayesian inference. This model could be used as a control tool, in order to determine which level of lane-changing activity can be allowed to achieve a desired capacity with some level of reliability.Previous results identify drivers' fulfillment of traffic regulations as a weak point in order to maximize the benefits of current management strategies, like VSL or lane-changing control. This is likely to change in the near future with the irruption of Autonomous Vehicles (AV) in freeways. V2X communications will allow directly actuating on individual vehicles with high accuracy. This will open the door to new management strategies based on simultaneous communication to groups of AVs and extremely short reaction times, like platooning, which stands out as a strategy with a huge potential to improve freeway traffic. Strings of AVs traveling at extremely short gaps (i.e. platoons) allow achieving higher capacities and lower energy consumption rates. In this context, the thesis presents a parsimonious macroscopic model for AVs platooning in mixed traffic (i.e. platoons of AVs travelling together with human driven vehicles). The model allows determining the average platoon length and reproducing the overall traffic dynamics leading to higher capacities. Results prove that with a 50% penetration rate of AVs in the lane, capacity could reach 3400 veh/h/lane under a cooperative platooning strategy.

Download or read book Concise Encyclopedia of Traffic and Transportation Systems written by M. Papageorgiou and published by Pergamon. This book was released on 1991-06-21 with total page 686 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "The vast expansion of transportation systems on land, sea and in the air throughout the twentieth century has allowed for the development of economic, social and political connections across the globe undreamed of by our ancestors. However, this expansion has brought with it familiar problems such as airport delays and gridlock in our major cities. Fortunately, parallel progress in system science and information technology can provide us with the appropriate tools for rational and efficient solutions to our exponentially increasing transportation demands. This encyclopedia addresses the analysis, modelling and control of today's and tomorrow's traffic and transportation systems in a concise, comprehensive single volume. Well over 100 articles have been specially commissioned, or revised from the acclaimed Systems & Control Encyclopedia, to provide an overview of and first reference to models, control methods and practical aspects of all forms of traffic and transportation systems with a particular emphasis on efficient utilization of available infrastructure, plus a consideration of their historical, organizational, economic and social impacts. The Concise Encyclopedia of Traffic & Transportation Systems will be essential for professional and academic scientists and engineers in any discipline concerned with the movement of people and materials."--Book description, Amazon.com.

Download or read book Simulation of Urban Mobility written by Michael Behrisch and published by Springer. This book was released on 2014-11-06 with total page 182 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book constitutes the thoroughly refereed proceedings of the First International Conference on Simulation of Urban Mobility, SUMO 2013, held in Berlin, Germany, in May 2013. The 12 revised full papers presented tin this book were carefully selected and reviewed from 22 submissions. The papers are organized in two topical sections: models and technical innovations and applications and surveys.

Download or read book Traffic Control Systems Handbook written by and published by . This book was released on 1976 with total page 670 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This handbook, which was developed in recognition of the need for the compilation and dissemination of information on advanced traffic control systems, presents the basic principles for the planning, design, and implementation of such systems for urban streets and freeways. The presentation concept and organization of this handbook is developed from the viewpoint of systems engineering. Traffic control studies are described, and traffic control and surveillance concepts are reviewed. Hardware components are outlined, and computer concepts, and communication concepts are stated. Local and central controllers are described, as well as display, television and driver information systems. Available systems technology and candidate system definition, evaluation and implementation are also covered. The management of traffic control systems is discussed.

Download or read book Proactive Integrated Control for Relieving Freeway Congestion written by Xu Wang and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 229 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Active bottlenecks limit traffic flow on freeway corridors. To relieve bottleneck severity, ramp metering (RM), variable speed limit (VSL) and their integration are often implemented to control the on-ramp and mainline input flow. Currently, freeway operation has become proactive based on short-term prediction. Macroscopic traffic flow models are often applied as prediction models in proactive traffic control strategies. Prior to field implementation, the models need to be calibrated and validated carefully to ensure that they represent real-life traffic situations. This study proposes modifications for METANET model to adapt it to the unpredictability of bottleneck activation during peak hours. The modified model is calibrated and verified its improvement of model prediction accuracy from segment-specific parameters. The modified model is validated that it can replicate traffic state evolutions during peak hours and be applicable in proactive traffic control practice. Weaving maneuvers (i.e., intensive lane changes) are a major cause of bottlenecks during high-demand periods. To consider weaving impacts in RM, this study introduces a proactive optimal RM algorithm that uses dynamic weaving capacity at weaving segments. Sensitivities of capacity and capacity drop are applied to dynamically estimate weaving capacity within a macroscopic traffic flow model. The proposed traffic flow model conducts estimation in a model predictive control (MPC) frame-work. The proposed RM algorithm is evaluated in macro-simulation and its effectiveness is enhanced by real-time estimated weaving capacity. The RM control research reveals a need of theoretical methods for weaving capacity estimation. This study then defines a linear optimization problem to solve weaving capacity and then establishes a lane-changing model to constrain the weaving flows. The proposed method is evaluated and analyzed for sensitivity with field data from two weaving segments. The capacity estimates from the proposed model are consistent with those from the HCM 2010 model and with field observations. Moreover, the weaving capacity is sensitive to weaving maneuvers. The proposed method is finally applied to estimate the real-time maximum discharge flow rate; the estimates match field measurements. Next, this study presents a proactive integrated control of RM and VSL, with goals to improve network-wide travel time and traffic flow. By decoupling the traffic prediction and simulation models, the possible control error sources are analyzed. The evaluation reveals the proactive integrated control achieves an amelioration in total time spent (TTS) up to 13.65% and an increase in total travel distance (TTD) up to 3.41%. The isolated and integrated controls benefit the traffic network in different extent under different demand scenarios. In addition, control rate profiles are analyzed in detail and found that RM is activated during slight congestion and the most congested situation to assist VSL. Through the integration, the infrastructure utility is maximized. Speed transition zones are complex when dynamically created and shifted by VSL. This study then attempts to represent speed limit effect and estimate real-time driver compliance at speed transition zones. The field data from two speed transition zones are investigated for temporal and spatial variations of speed and driver compliance using statistical tests. After selecting several key factors from statistical tests, a linear regression is established to rank the contributions of the selected factors and other general factors proposed by previous research. The regression results confirm speed limit value, surrounding traffic speed and existence of activated speed enforcement or education devices contribute more to driver compliance. Finally, this study reports the preliminary VSL test and details its implementation procedure on Whitemud Drive, Edmonton, Canada. DynaTAM-VSL software is designed to realize all necessary functions for VSL filed implementation. The preliminary test is conducted, and the VSL control performance and reliability are evaluated. The results for before-and-after VSL control are finally analyzed in depth. The analysis compares average traffic speed, standard deviation of speed, total travel time and total travel distance. The results from this study confirm that VSL can relieve recurrent traffic congestion.

Download or read book Freeway Traffic Modelling and Control written by Antonella Ferrara and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-04-12 with total page 324 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This monograph provides an extended overview of modelling and control approaches for freeway traffic systems, moving from the early methods to the most recent scientific results and field implementations. The concepts of green traffic systems and smart mobility are addressed in the book, since a modern freeway traffic management system should be designed to be sustainable. Future perspectives on freeway traffic control are also analysed and discussed with reference to the most recent technological advancements The most widespread modelling and control techniques for freeway traffic systems are treated with mathematical rigour, but also discussed with reference to their performance assessment and to the expected impact of their practical usage in real traffic systems. In order to make the book accessible to readers of different backgrounds, some fundamental aspects of traffic theory as well as some basic control concepts, useful for better understanding the addressed topics, are provided in the book. This monograph can be used as a textbook for courses on transport engineering, traffic management and control. It is also addressed to experts working in traffic monitoring and control areas and to researchers, technicians and practitioners of both transportation and control engineering. The authors’ systematic vision of traffic modelling and control methods developed over decades makes the book a valuable survey resource for freeway traffic managers, freeway stakeholders and transportation public authorities with professional interests in freeway traffic systems. Advances in Industrial Control reports and encourages the transfer of technology in control engineering. The rapid development of control technology has an impact on all areas of the control discipline. The series offers an opportunity for researchers to present an extended exposition of new work in all aspects of industrial control.

Download or read book Urban Mobility Report 2004 written by David Schrank and published by DIANE Publishing. This book was released on 2008-10 with total page 24 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Congestion continues to grow in America¿s urban areas. This report presents details on the 2004 trends, findings and what can be done to address the growing transportation problems. Trend data from 1982 to 2002 for 85 urban areas provides both a local view and a national perspective on the growth and extent of traffic congestion. The 2004 Report provides clear evidence that the time for improvements has arrived. Communicating the congestion levels and the need for improvements is a goal of this report. The decisions about which, and how much, improvement to fund will be made at the local level according to a variety of goals, but there are some broad conclusions that can be drawn from this database. Tables.

Download or read book Control Logic for the Operation of Rural Variable Speed Limits Subject to Severe Winter Conditions written by Vijay Kumar Sabawat Krishna and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 198 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Variable Speed Limit (VSL) systems are an innovative way of managing traffic using Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Unlike the traditional static speed limit signs, VSLs are speed limit signs with a capability of changing regulatory speed limits according to changing real time weather and traffic conditions. VSLs are primarily used to reduce traffic congestion and improve safety along roadways. Wyoming weather is highly variable and often severe, in the absence of recommended speed limits for such conditions drivers select their own safe driving speed leading to high variance among vehicles. This high speed variance, results in high crash rates and frequent road closures. Currently Wyoming Department of Transportation (WYDOT) using an interim manual protocol to deploy speed limits on VSL corridors. A new automated self-learning methodology for deploying VSL is described in this dissertation. As a first step in this project, weather variables that have a significant effect on vehicle speeds during bad weather conditions were identified using a robust regression statistical procedure. Second, an automated control strategy was designed that uses real time weather and observed speed variables. Third, a statistical model called decision trees was used in control strategy to enhance the performance of the automated control strategy. Fourth, a self-learning component is added to the control strategy to address concerns about the high variability of different storm events in this region. The proposed automated self-learning algorithm was tested on previous storm event datasets and results from the simulation indicate that the new system is more efficient than the current manual protocol of deploying speed limits. Finally, the transferability of the proposed control strategy was evaluated by applying the self-learning control strategy that was developed based on the storm data available at the Elk Mountain corridor to the storm data available at Laramie-Cheyenne corridor.

Download or read book An Investigation on the Environmental Benefits of a Variable Speed Control Strategy written by Zhong Wang and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 62 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book New Technologies Development and Application III written by Isak Karabegović and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-05-04 with total page 1021 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This proceedings book features papers presented at the International Conference on New Technologies, Development and Application, held at the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo on 25th–27th June 2020. It covers a wide range of future technologies and technical disciplines, including complex systems such as Industry 4.0; patents in Industry 4.0; robotics; mechatronics systems; automation; manufacturing; cyber-physical and autonomous systems; sensors; networks; control; energy and renewable energy sources; automotive and biological systems; vehicular networking and connected vehicles; effectiveness and logistics systems; smart grids; nonlinear systems; power; social and economic systems; education; and IoT. The book focuses on the Fourth Industrial Revolution “Industry 4.0,” in which implementation will improve many aspects of human life in all segments and lead to changes in business paradigms and production models. Further, new business methods are emerging, transforming production systems, transport, delivery, and consumption, which need to be monitored and implemented by every company involved in the global market.

Download or read book Strong Towns written by Charles L. Marohn, Jr. and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2019-10-01 with total page 262 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A new way forward for sustainable quality of life in cities of all sizes Strong Towns: A Bottom-Up Revolution to Build American Prosperity is a book of forward-thinking ideas that breaks with modern wisdom to present a new vision of urban development in the United States. Presenting the foundational ideas of the Strong Towns movement he co-founded, Charles Marohn explains why cities of all sizes continue to struggle to meet their basic needs, and reveals the new paradigm that can solve this longstanding problem. Inside, you’ll learn why inducing growth and development has been the conventional response to urban financial struggles—and why it just doesn’t work. New development and high-risk investing don’t generate enough wealth to support itself, and cities continue to struggle. Read this book to find out how cities large and small can focus on bottom-up investments to minimize risk and maximize their ability to strengthen the community financially and improve citizens’ quality of life. Develop in-depth knowledge of the underlying logic behind the “traditional” search for never-ending urban growth Learn practical solutions for ameliorating financial struggles through low-risk investment and a grassroots focus Gain insights and tools that can stop the vicious cycle of budget shortfalls and unexpected downturns Become a part of the Strong Towns revolution by shifting the focus away from top-down growth toward rebuilding American prosperity Strong Towns acknowledges that there is a problem with the American approach to growth and shows community leaders a new way forward. The Strong Towns response is a revolution in how we assemble the places we live.

Download or read book Road Traffic Congestion A Concise Guide written by John C. Falcocchio and published by Springer. This book was released on 2015-03-13 with total page 403 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book on road traffic congestion in cities and suburbs describes congestion problems and shows how they can be relieved. The first part (Chapters 1 - 3) shows how congestion reflects transportation technologies and settlement patterns. The second part (Chapters 4 - 13) describes the causes, characteristics, and consequences of congestion. The third part (Chapters 14 - 23) presents various relief strategies - including supply adaptation and demand mitigation - for nonrecurring and recurring congestion. The last part (Chapter 24) gives general guidelines for congestion relief and provides a general outlook for the future. The book will be useful for a wide audience - including students, practitioners and researchers in a variety of professional endeavors: traffic engineers, transportation planners, public transport specialists, city planners, public administrators, and private enterprises that depend on transportation for their activities.

Download or read book Synthesis of Variable Speed Limit Signs written by Bryan Katz and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 85 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Variable speed limit (VSL) systems utilize information on traffic speed, occupancy, and volume detection, weather, and road surface conditions to determine the appropriate speeds at which drivers should be traveling, given current roadway and traffic conditions. The use of VSL during less than ideal conditions, such as heavy traffic and adverse weather, can improve safety by decreasing the risks associated with traveling at speeds that are higher than appropriate for the conditions and by reducing speed variance in traffic. In addition, VSL can be used to dynamically manage speeds during planned (rush hour congestion) and unplanned (incidents) events. Used in conjunction with managed lanes and other active traffic management strategies, VSL can respond to downstream congestion to eliminate or delay bottlenecks and mitigate the possibility of crashes. Based on a comprehensive literature review along with agency interviews to gather information on existing, deactivated and planned VSL systems, this synthesis provides a comprehensive review of current practices on VSL operations, particularly experiences from deployments in the United States, and to identify successful and best practices from the following perspectives: planning and policy, design, deployment, and standards, operations and maintenance, and outcomes.