Download or read book Hippocampus to ventricle ratio HVR as a Novel Biomarker for Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer Disease AD written by Xiang Hu and published by . This book was released on 2024 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Neuroimaging biomarkers in Alzheimer s disease written by Samuel Barrack and published by iMedPub. This book was released on 2013-10-20 with total page 134 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In view of the growing prevalence of AD worldwide, there is an urgent need for the development of better diagnostic tools and more effective therapeutic interventions. Indeed, much work in this field has been done during last decades. As such, a major goal of current clinical research in AD is to improve early detection of disease and presymptomatic detection of neuronal dysfunction, concurrently with the development of better tools to assess disease progression in this group of disorders. All these putative correlates are commonly referred to as AD-related biomarkers. The ideal biomarker should be easy to quantify and measure, reproducible, not subject to wide variation in the general population and unaffected by co- morbid factors. For evaluation of therapies, a biomarker needs to change linearly with disease progression and closely correlate with established clinico-pathological parameters of the disease. There is growing evidence that the use of biomarkers will increase our ability to better indentify the underlying biology of AD, especially in its early stages. These biomarkers will improve the detection of the patients suitable for research studies and drug trials, and they will contribute to a better management of the disease in the clinical practice. Indeed, much work in this field has been done during last decades. The vast number of important applications, combined with the untamed diversity of already identified biomarkers, show that there is a pressing need to structure the research made on AD biomarkers into a solid, comprehensive and easy to use tool to de deployed in clinical settings. To date there are few publications compiling results on this topic. That is why when I was asked to address this task I accepted inmediately. I am happy to present you a bundle of the best articles published about biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease in recent times.
Download or read book Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer s Disease written by Leonard F. M. Scinto and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2000-02-09 with total page 366 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Drs. Leonard Scinto and Kirk Daffner provide a comprehensive survey of new diagnostic approaches to Alzheimer's disease. The authoritative contributors critically survey the most promising current research on early diagnostic markers for Alzheimer's disease, including the elucidation of changes in the brain revealed by structural and functional neuroimaging, as well as the characteristic patterns of cognitive decline that are documented by sensitive neuropsychological tests, various genetic markers, and biological assays. Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease illuminates the complex issues surrounding the search for early markers of this increasingly widespread disease. It will establish a new standard reference guide for all those working with Alzheimer's patients.
Download or read book Development and Validation of Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI based Biomarkers for Diagnosis and Prognosis of Prodromal Alzheimer s Disease written by Azar Zandifar and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease and the most common cause of dementia. Currently in Canada, there are about 750,000 people living with dementia with more than 60,000 new cases diagnosed each year. Considering the relative failures in recent clinical trials, combined with the promising prospect of life-style changes, early prediction of the future onset of dementia in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease continuum can be highly beneficial. Advances in better identifying future progressors may both enhance population design for clinical trials and better identify the at-risk populations for life-style interventions. This thesis focuses on enhancement of dementia onset in patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) using structural Magnetic Resonance Images (MRI) driven markers. The volume of the hippocampus is one of the best-known MRI-based biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease. Here, it is investigated using four different automatic hippocampus segmentation methods, each enhanced with bias error correction. Results show that multi-atlas-based hippocampus segmentation methods are accurate and show high conformity with manual delineation, and they can be further enhanced using a bias correction technique. The methods compared are not significantly different in their ability to capture AD related pathology. The Cohen's d group difference in hippocampal volume between patients with Alzheimer's dementia and healthy controls is high for all the methods and is of medium size between patients with MCI who convert to dementia in the near future and to those who remain stable for all the methods.Due to the wide-spread use of hippocampal volume a recent effort has been made by researchers in the field to harmonize the hippocampus segmentation protocol. The resulting new protocol, known as the EADC-ADNI harmonized protocol or the HarP, needs more validation. I validate the protocol using a large multi-center database designed for AD biomarker research. The results show that the HarP-based automatic segmentation is an accurate hippocampal segmentation which can be used in AD-related research to capture the Alzheimer's pathology. The methods described above are used in a novel model to predict the onset of dementia in an MCI population during different follow-up periods. The model combines information from MRI-driven markers from the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex with cognitive scores at baseline and tries to predict the diagnostic stage of each subject in different time intervals following the baseline visit. The model produces promising results using information from both cognitive scores and MRI markers to reach higher performance. MRI markers are more sensitive, while cognitive scores bring specificity to the prediction. Furthermore, for a follow-up period of 5 years, the model reaches an area under the receiver operating curve of 0.92 and an accuracy of 87%. Therefore, the prognostic model demonstrates promise as a candidate to be used in the clinic to identify subjects with prodromal Alzheimer's dementia at the MCI stage. Finally, I show that the AD-related atrophy pattern is even present in cognitively normal subjects and can be captured through hippocampal-based markers. I show that there is a small effect size (as measured by Cohen's d) between hippocampal volume in subjects who progress to MCI and/or dementia or subjects who maintain their normal cognition, while the effect is of medium size for the hippocampal grade. This thesis evaluates different automatic and manual hippocampus segmentation techniques and validates hippocampus volume as the most widely used AD marker. Moreover, I present a model to predict the onset of dementia in subjects MCI. I further validate hippocampal driven markers as an Alzheimer's biomarker in very early stages of the disease. Therefore, the results of this work will improve early detection of Alzheimer's leading to decrease the prevalence of the disease." --
Download or read book The Clinical Spectrum of Alzheimer s Disease written by Suzanne De La Monte and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2011-09-06 with total page 380 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Clinical Spectrum of Alzheimer's Disease: The Charge Toward Comprehensive Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategies is highly informative and current. Acknowledged experts in the field critically review both standard and under-appreciated clinical, behavioral, epidemiological, genetic, and neuroimaging attributes of Alzheimer's disease. The collection covers diverse topics of interest to clinicians and researchers alike. Experienced professionals and newcomers to the field will benefit from the read. The strengths and weaknesses of current clinical, non-invasive, neuro-imaging, and biomarker diagnostic approaches are explained. The perspectives give fresh insights into the process of neurodegeneration. Readers will be enlightened by the evidence that the neural circuits damaged by neurodegeneration are much broader than conventionally taught, suggesting that Alzheimer's could be detected at earlier stages of disease by utilizing multi-pronged diagnostic approaches. This book inspires renewed hope that more effective treatments could be developed based upon the expanding list of potential therapeutic targets.
Download or read book Hippocampus written by Xinhua Zhang and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2022-01-12 with total page 215 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The hippocampus is a bicortical structure with extensive fiber connections with multiple brain regions. It is involved in several functions, such as learning, memory, attention, emotion, and more. This book covers various aspects of the hippocampus including cytoarchitecture, functions, diseases, and treatment. It highlights the most advanced findings in research on the hippocampus. It discusses circuits, pattern formation process of grid cells, and zinc dynamics of the hippocampus. The book also addresses the tau pathology and circRNAs related to Alzheimer’s disease and potential treatment strategies. It is a useful resource for general readers, students, and researchers.
Download or read book Biomarkers for Preclinical Alzheimer s Disease written by Robert Perneczky and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 272 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book The Utility of Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound in the Detection of Preclinical Alzheimer s Disease written by Mohammed Rasheed Alwatban and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The contribution of this dissertation is two-fold. First, the research proposed a novel biomarker to detect early AD. Second, the study enhanced the understanding of the association between brain hypoperfusion and AD.
Download or read book Study of Longitudinal Neurodegeneration Biomarkers to Support the Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer s Disease written by Giovana Gavidia Bovadilla and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 204 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive and neurodegenerative disorder characterized by pathological brain changes starting several years before clinical symptoms appear. Earlier and accurate identification of those brain structures changes can help to improve diagnosis and monitoring, allowing that future treatments target the disease in its earliest stages, before irreversible brain damage or mental decline takes place. The brain of AD subjects shrinks significantly as the disease progress. Furthermore, ageing is the major risk factor for sporadic AD, older brains being more susceptible than young or middle-aged ones. However, seemingly healthy elderly brains lose matter in regions related to AD. Likewise, similar changes can also be found in subjects having mild cognitive impairment (MCI), which is a symptomatic pre-dementia phase of AD. This work proposes two methods based on statistical learning methods, which are focused on characterising the ageing-related changes in brain structures of healthy elderly controls (HC), MCI and AD subjects, and addressing the estimation of the current diagnosis (ECD) of HC, MCI and AD, as well as the prediction of future diagnosis (PFD) of these groups mainly focused on the early diagnosis of conversion from MCI to AD. Data correspond to longitudinal neurodegeneration measurements from Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images. These biomarkers were obtained from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) and the Open Access Series of Imaging Studies (OASIS). ADNI data includes MRI biomarkers available at a 5-year follow up on HC, MCI and AD subjects, while OASIS data only includes biomarkers measured at baseline on HC and AD. In the first method, called M-res, variant (vr) and quasi-variant (qvr) biomarkers were identified on HC subjects by using a Linear Mixed Effects (LME) approach on males and females, separately. Then, we built an ageing-based null model, which would characterise the normal atrophy and growth patterns of vr and qvr biomarkers, as well as the correlation between them. By using the null model on those subjects who had been clinically diagnosed as HC, MCI or AD, normal age-related changes were estimated, and then, their deviation scores (residuals) from the observed MRI-based biomarkers were computed. In contrast to M-res, the second method, called M-raw, is focused on directly analyzing the raw MRI-based biomarkers values stratified by five-year age groups. M-raw includes a differential diagnosis-specific feature selection (FS) method, which is applied before classification. In both methods, the differential diagnosis problem was addressed by building Support Vector Machines (SVM) models to carry out three main experiments—AD vs. HC, MCI vs. HC, and AD vs. MCI. In M-res, the SVM models were trained by using as input the residuals computed for the vr biomarkers plus the age, whereas in M-raw, we used the pool of selected features plus age, gender and years of education. The advancement of early disease prediction was calculated as the average number of years advanced in the PFD of the subjects concerning the last known clinical diagnosis. Finally, the ability of both methods to correctly discriminate AD vs. HC subjects was evaluated and compared by testing them on OASIS subjects observed at baseline. Results confirm accelerated or reduced estimates of decline in all cortical biomarkers with increasing age and a frontotemporal pattern of atrophy in HC subjects, as well as in MCI and AD. Regarding the ECD problem, all SVM models obtained better results than comparable methods in the literature for most classification quality indicators, especially on AD vs. HC. Both methods also improve the PFD given the current clinical tests, both in prediction quality indicators and the amount of time by which the diagnosis is advanced.
Download or read book Multi scale and Multimodal Imaging Biomarkers for the Early Detection of Alzheimer s Disease written by Kilian Hett and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common dementia leading to a neurodegenerative process and causing mental dysfunctions. According to the world health organization, the number of patients having AD will double in 20 years. Neuroimaging studies performed on AD patients revealed that structural brain alterations are advanced when the diagnosis is established. Indeed, the clinical symptoms of AD are preceded by brain changes. This stresses the need to develop new biomarkers to detect the first stages of the disease. The development of such biomarkers can make easier the design of clinical trials and therefore accelerate the development of new therapies. Over the past decades, the improvement of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has led to the development of new imaging biomarkers. Such biomarkers demonstrated their relevance for computer-aided diagnosis but have shown limited performances for AD prognosis. Recently, advanced biomarkers were proposed toimprove computer-aided prognosis. Among them, patch-based grading methods demonstrated competitive results to detect subtle modifications at the earliest stages of AD. Such methods have shown their ability to predict AD several years before the conversion to dementia. For these reasons, we have had a particular interest in patch-based grading methods. First, we studied patch-based grading methods for different anatomical scales (i.e., whole brain, hippocampus, and hippocampal subfields). We adapted patch-based grading method to different MRI modalities (i.e., anatomical MRI and diffusion-weighted MRI) and developed an adaptive fusion scheme. Then, we showed that patch comparisons are improved with the use of multi-directional derivative features. Finally, we proposed a new method based on a graph modeling that enables to combine information from inter-subjects' similarities and intra-subjects' variability. The conducted experiments demonstrate that our proposed method enable an improvement of AD detection and prediction.
Download or read book The Road Less Traveled written by and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Quantifying Neurochemical Changes in Early Alzheimer s Disease written by Katrina Cruickshank and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that advances through a unique cascade of characteristic neuropathological features. Distinguishing features include the accumulation of amyloid beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain, accompanied by learning and memory impairments. The disease is projected to begin years-to-decades before clinical diagnosis. Accordingly, prodromal biomarkers are a necessity with early diagnosis as the goal. Neurochemical measures obtained via non-invasive brain imaging have potential to serve as early, AD biomarkers. Evidence suggests that alterations in the concentrations of certain metabolites are related to inflammation. It is known that while inflammation is ubiquitous in the progressed disease state, it is also apparent during initial stages. Of interest, a paradoxical increase in neuronal activity during early stages of AD has been noted, with a suspected link to an initial inflammatory response via proinflammatory cytokines. Early evidence suggests that alongside their role in immune mediation, cytokines play a critical part in maintaining optimal synaptic activity, and that early deviations from this role may contribute directly to downstream AD pathogenesis. Therefore, as magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) has the capacity to noninvasively quantify neurochemical concentrations, it is an appropriate tool to pinpoint early fluctuations associated with inflammation and elevated cytokine activation.A greater understanding of AD requires an improved appreciation for its initial evolution. This requires, not only investigation into potential preclinical, neurochemical biomarkers, but furthermore, an examination into any parallel cognitive deficits. This project investigated prodromal AD in a transgenic (Tg) rodent model from early adulthood to middle age. It utilized in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) to assess longitudinal changes in neurochemistry and the Barnes maze (BM) to evaluate spatial learning and memory. The central research objective was the longitudinal characterization of neurochemistry and behaviour in the TgF344-AD rodent model during the initial disease state, to highlight abnormalities that precede diagnosable AD.The study was conducted from approximately 4 to 10 months of age, in both TgF344-AD rats and their wildtype (WT) controls. Five evenly spaced magnetic resonance (MR) scans were acquired during this time (1 every 6 weeks), in addition to three sessions of behavioural testing (1 every 2 months). The BM was implemented to test spatial learning and memory ability, and longitudinal changes in metabolic levels were evaluated through linear mixed effects modeling.Altered neurochemistry was recorded between genotypes and across time in prodromal stages of AD. More specifically, Tg rats had significantly lower levels of glutamine (Gln), a precursor to glutamate (Glu), following disease initiation and increasing with age. In addition, with time Glu levels fell and myo-inositol (Ins) levels rose, independent of genotype. N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), reportedly reduced at later stages of AD, remained unchanged in Tg relative to WT rats. Neurochemical changes were not accompanied by a significant loss in cognitive ability, and thus appear to precede characteristic cognitive impairments.This research demonstrates that altered neurochemistry materializes in early AD and occurs before the onset of measurable behavioural deficits. A better understanding of preclinical AD requires further investigation into the relationship between neurochemistry, cognition, neuroanatomy, and the concentrations of proinflammatory mediators. Consequently, this could contribute to novel diagnostic and treatment techniques through the identification of reliable, early biomarkers"--
Download or read book Multimodal in Vivo Biomarker based Investigation of Alzheimer s Disease Pathophysiology and Drug Discovery written by Min Su Kang and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "In vivo biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) have made remarkable progress during the past decades in detecting the pathological hallmarks of AD: aggregates of amyloid-beta (A[beta]) plaques, aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau/neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), and neurodegeneration. Today, such biomarkers can be quantified using advanced brain imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) as well as more readily available and accessible biofluid platforms such as in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and/or plasma sampling. In 2018, the US National Institute of Aging (NIA) and Alzheimer's Association (AA) has put forth a research framework, the A/T/(N) classification system - A[beta], hyperphosphorylated tau, and neurodegeneration, in which the diagnostic criteria are now exclusively based on the biological construct of AD. Although the application of the biological-based diagnostic criteria on clinical diagnosis of AD is still debated, the A/T/(N) system has provided a consensus in the AD research community. This has 1) accelerated the discoveries and validations of novel biomarkers across a multitude of platforms, 2) promoted a deeper understanding and a more accurate characterization of AD pathophysiological processes leading to cognitive impairment, 3) enabled clinical trial enrichment by precisely defining the potential therapeutic target, intervention study design, and biomarker-based evaluation of therapeutic target engagement and efficacy. In this Ph. D. thesis, three original studies provide three novel findings using the A/T/(N) classification research framework to 1) validate a novel fluid neuronal injury biomarker, neurofilament light chain (NFL) as a new addition to the AD biomarker A/T/(N) classification, 2) support activated microglia as an important factor in AD pathophysiological processes leading to aggregation of hyperphosphorylated tau and subsequent cognitive impairment in the presence of A[beta], and 3) demonstrate a potential disease-modifying AD therapeutic and a platform, in which to facilitate new drug discovery"--
Download or read book Hippocampus written by Ambroise Gärtner and published by Nova Biomedical Books. This book was released on 2010 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A peculiar feature of the mammalian hippocampus is that it maintains the ability to generate new neurons throughout adult life while most other areas of the brain do not. In this book, we outline evidence for the functional consequences of adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus highlighting a possible role in learning and memory and depression. Presynaptic modulation at the MF synapse is also described with respect to its involvement in the activity-dependent nature of the MF synapse and contribution to physiological functions of MFs. In addition, the hippocampus is one of the first and most affected brain regions impacted by both Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. This book discusses such negative consequences of aging and diseases which may be prevented or reversed by physical exercise, which has been associated with improved hippocampul-dependent learning and memory and executive functioning. The functional status of hippocampal cholinergic terminals was also assessed in order to determine if an early beginning of ethanol consumption at moderate doses disrupts acetylcholine release in animals non selected by ethanol preference.
Download or read book BrainAGE written by Katja Franke and published by Sudwestdeutscher Verlag Fur Hochschulschriften AG. This book was released on 2014-09-09 with total page 168 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Based on the widespread but well-ordered brain tissue loss that occurs with healthy aging into senescence, this work presents a novel magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based biomarker, which identifies normal and abnormal aging-related brain atrophy. The novel BrainAGE approach is based on a database of structural MRI data, aggregating the complex, multidimensional aging patterns across the whole brain to one single value, i.e. the estimated brain age. Consequently, subtle deviations in "normal" brain atrophy can be directly quantified in terms of years by analyzing one standard MRI scan per subject. Various neuro-degenerative diseases - especially Alzheimer's disease (AD) - are widely linked to advanced brain aging. The BrainAGE approach is applied to identify advanced brain aging in subjects with mild cognitive impairment and AD, to predict conversion to AD, to relate individual BrainAGE scores with disease severity and prospective worsening of cognitive functions. Furthermore, BrainAGE identifies various risk factors of pathological brain aging that may precede the onset of clinical symptoms (e.g., diabetes mellitus type 2, metabolic syndrome).
Download or read book Auditory P50 written by Deborah L. Green and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 198 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a growing health concern as the population and percentage of older adults continues to rise. The pathophysiological process underlying the disease is present for years before the onset of clinical symptoms, providing a potential window of opportunity to intervene before neural systems are irreparably damaged. The necessity for early intervention is one driving force in the search for biomarkers to indicate the presence or absence of disease or the likelihood of developing AD. Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of beta amyloid (Aβ) and tau, linked to the pathogenesis of AD, have been the most extensively studied biomarkers. While promising, CSF biomarkers are invasive, costly and have limited accessibility. In contrast, electroencephalogram-derived event-related potential (ERP) techniques, as proposed in this study, are noninvasive, inexpensive and widely accessible. ERPs are capable of detecting abnormalities in brain activity that reflect underlying disease-related changes in the brain. Abnormal ERPs have long been observed in AD patients and in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). More recently, several studies have shown the P50 ERP component differentiates AD patients from controls and may have utility predicting MCI conversion to dementia. The present study investigated the P50 ERP component as a potential AD biomarker in MCI patients and cognitively normal controls. Thirty-six patients with MCI were divided into two groups based on CSF evidence of amyloidosis. Twenty-seven age-matched controls were divided into groups using a median split of amyloid level. An auditory oddball paradigm was used to elicit the P50 response. Very few cognitively normal controls were amyloid positive and P50 amplitude was not found to differ as a function of Aβ level. Amyloid-positive MCI patients showed larger P50 amplitudes for all stimulus conditions relative to the amyloid-negative group. P50 amplitude was also a significant predictor of CSF status in the MCI patients. The best predictor conditions showed 94.7% sensitivity, 94.1% specificity and total model accuracy of 94.4% when classifying the MCI patients according to amyloid positivity. P50 amplitude did not differ between MCI patients and normal controls, providing support for a distinct relationship between P50 and AD pathology versus clinical symptoms due to another etiology. P50 may therefore have clinical utility as a prescreening measure to identify in vivo Alzheimer's pathology in pre-dementia stages of the disease. Findings across the literature implicate the prefrontal cortex in top-down modulation of the auditory cortical response. Larger, unrestrained P50 may reflect a deficit in this modulating activity, possibly via disrupted cortico-cortical pathways, alterations in cholinergic system function, or impairment in functional neural networks affected by early AD pathology.
Download or read book Electroencephalogram Based Biomarkers for Detection of Alzheimer s Disease written by Ali H Husseen Al-Nuaimi and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alzheimer,Äôs disease (AD) is an age-related progressive and neurodegenerative disorder, which is characterized by loss of memory and cognitive decline. It is the main cause of disability among older people. The rapid increase in the number of people living with AD and other forms of dementia due to the aging population represents a major challenge to health and social care systems worldwide. Degeneration of brain cells due to AD starts many years before the clinical manifestations become clear. Early diagnosis of AD will contribute to the development of effective treatments that could slow, stop, or prevent significant cognitive decline. Consequently, early diagnosis of AD may also be valuable in detecting patients with dementia who have not obtained a formal early diagnosis, and this may provide them with a chance to access suitable healthcare facilities. An early diagnosis biomarker capable of measuring brain cell degeneration due to AD would be valuable. Potentially, electroencephalogram (EEG) can play a valuable role in the early diagnosis of AD. EEG is noninvasive and low cost, and provides valuable information about brain dynamics in AD. Thus, EEG-based biomarkers may be used as a first-line decision-support tool in AD diagnosis and could complement other AD biomarkers.
