Download or read book The Effects of Endurance Training at 2 440m Altitude on Anaerobic Threshold at Altitude and Sea Level in Young Male and Female Middle Distance Runners written by Matthew John Berenda and published by . This book was released on 1982 with total page 206 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book The Effects of Endurance Training at 2 440m Altitude written by Allen Anthony Hazard and published by . This book was released on 1982 with total page 310 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book The Effects of Training at 2 400 Meters Altitude on Endurance Performance at Altitude and Sea Level written by Brad Alan Roy and published by . This book was released on 1981 with total page 208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Effects of Training at Altitude on Anaerobic Distance and Critical Velocity written by James A. Hodgdon and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A work capacity model has been proposed as a means of estimating both aerobic and anaerobic capacities from a series of performance measures. The relationship between power and time is modeled as a rectangular hyperbola offset by an amount reflecting a power output which theoretically can be maintained indefinitely (Pcrit). Additionally, the amount of work that can be performed at levels above P(crit) is fixed and referred to as the anaerobic work capacity (Wan). Run times for distances of 1609, 3218, and 4828 m were recorded at sea level (140 m) 5 days prior to (PRE) travel to 2440 m altitude, within 5 days of arrival at 2440 m (ALT), and within 5 days of return to sea level (RTN) for 19 college track athletes. Values for critical velocity (Vcrit) and anaerobic distance (Dan) were determined for each individual at each session (PRE, ALT, and RTN) as the intercept and slope, respectively of the linear least squares regression of running velocity on the inverse of run time for the three performance runs. V(crit) was used as an estimate of P(crit) in the model and D as an estimate of W(an). There was a variation in V(crit) with session. V(crit) was smaller at altitude than at sea level. There was also a small but significant increase in V(crit) at RTN compared to PRE. V(crit) differed between genders, but there was no gender by session interaction. D(an) also varied with session having decreased values at altitude relative to sea level. There were no differences in PRE and RTN values for D(an) no gender differences, and no gender by session.
Download or read book Effects of Training at Altitude on Anaerobic Distance and Critical Velocity written by James A. Hodgdon and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page 7 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Optimising Training Prescription and Periodisation During Altitude Training in Elite Runners written by Avish P. Sharma and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 237 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Altitude training is frequently utilised by elite runners to improve performance in subsequent competition at sea-level. Alongside the beneficial physiological adaptations which can be obtained with a sufficient period of hypoxic residence, periodisation and distribution of training intensity likely have a strong influence on subsequent athletic performance. Moreover, understanding the limitations of exercise in-, and physiological responses to- hypoxia, and how they differ across the spectrum of intensities at which runners are required to train, may assist in effective programming of training at altitude. Whilst sound principles exist regarding sea-level training practices, there is continuing uncertainty regarding the efficacy of altitude training due in part to the neglect of these principles in many studies. Furthermore, the characterisation and periodisation of training is seldom discussed amongst the reasons contributing to observed performance or physiological changes within the altitude training literature. As such, the primary theme of this thesis was a focus on training during altitude exposure, with the aim of optimising altitude training for performance improvement during subsequent sea-level competition.Study One observed differences in running speed and perceived exertion when elite runners completed the same training sessions (covering four different intensities relevant to middle-distance running), at sea-level and during a live high train high (LHTH) camp at 2100 m. Study Two examined the differences in oxygen uptake and anaerobic contribution between various interval training sessions completed in normoxia, low (1400 m) and moderate normobaric hypoxia (2100 m). Study Three followed a group of elite runners completing a LHTH intervention at 2100 m to prepare for competition within a week of return to sea-level, with training monitored during both the lead-in period at sea-level and the LHTH intervention to identify training periodisation strategies, as well as the effect of LHTH on training load. Finally, utilising a parallel-groups, repeated measures design, Study Four compared the effects of completing a block of living and intensified training at sea-level, 1600 or 1800 m on performance throughout a subsequent competitive season.The key findings of this research were: i) compared to sea-level, running speed in elite runners is adversely affected at 2100 m in an intensity-dependent manner (Study One); ii) completing high-intensity interval running at 2100 m simulated altitude, but not 1400 m, is likely to induce a lower V̇O2 and greater anaerobic contribution to exercise during threshold and maximal aerobic sessions when compared to training at 580 m; however race-pace training is largely unaffected (Study Two); iii) elite runners achieved personal best performances in sea-level competition immediately following LHTH at 2100 m (Study Three); and iv) a pre-competition, three week block of LHTH at 1600 or 1800 m yielded greater performance improvements in subsequent sea-level races than undertaking similar training at sea-level (Study Four). Taken together, the positive performance outcomes noted following altitude training may be due to the greater overall load of training in hypoxia compared to normoxia, effective tapering strategies, individualisation of training and competition schedules, as well as a hypoxia induced increase in haemoglobin mass (Studies Three and Four). Moreover, the wide time frame for peak performances observed following LHTH suggests that the window for optimal performance is highly individual, and factors other than altitude exposure per se may be important (Study Four). Contrary to existing guidelines, during natural altitude camps involving elite runners with prior altitude experience, remaining at moderate altitude to complete some high-intensity training may be beneficial, as is integrating established training practices such as overload (utilising hypoxic stress to facilitate the increase in load) and taper into a periodised and monitored training program. In summary, the findings of this thesis may be used to optimise the altitude training process at both low and moderate altitudes, with beneficial implications for elite athletes utilising this strategy during their competition preparation.
Download or read book Respiratory Muscle Training written by Alison McConnell and published by Elsevier Health Sciences. This book was released on 2013-04-18 with total page 403 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Respiratory Muscle Training: theory and practice is the world’s first book to provide an "everything-you-need-to-know" guide to respiratory muscle training (RMT). Authored by an internationally-acclaimed expert, it is an evidence-based resource, built upon current scientific knowledge, as well as experience at the cutting-edge of respiratory training in a wide range of settings. The aim of the book is to give readers: 1) an introduction to respiratory physiology and exercise physiology, as well as training theory; 2) an understanding of how disease affects the respiratory muscles and the mechanics of breathing; 3) an insight into the disease-specific, evidence-based benefits of RMT; 4) advice on the application of RMT as a standalone treatment, and as part of a rehabilitation programme; and finally, 5) guidance on the application of functional training techniques to RMT. The book is divided into two parts – theory and practice. Part I provides readers with access to the theoretical building blocks that support practice. It explores the evidence base for RMT as well as the different methods of training respiratory muscles and their respective efficacy. Part II guides the reader through the practical implementation of the most widely validated form of RMT, namely inspiratory muscle resistance training. Finally, over 150 "Functional" RMT exercises are described, which incorporate a stability and/or postural challenge – and address specific movements that provoke dyspnoea. Respiratory Muscle Training: theory and practice is supported by a dedicated website (www.physiobreathe.com), which provides access to the latest information on RMT, as well as video clips of all exercises described in the book. Purchasers will also receive a three-month free trial of the Physiotec software platform (via www.physiotec.ca), which allows clinicians to create bespoke training programmes (including video clips) that can be printed or emailed to patients. Introductory overviews of respiratory and exercise physiology, as well as training theory Comprehensive, up-to-date review of respiratory muscle function, breathing mechanics and RMT Analysis of the interaction between disease and respiratory mechanics, as well as their independent and combined influence upon exercise tolerance Analysis of the rationale and application of RMT to over 20 clinical conditions, e.g., COPD, heart failure, obesity, mechanical ventilation Evidence-based guidance on the implementation of inspiratory muscle resistance training Over 150 functional exercises that incorporate a breathing challenge www.physiobreathe.com - access up-to-date information, video clips of exercises and a three-month free trial of Physiotec’s RMT exercise module (via www.physiotec.ca)
Download or read book Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance Characteristics of Champion Runners at Sea Level and Moderate Altitude written by Jack Daniels and published by . This book was released on 1969 with total page 516 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book High Altitude Physiology and Medicine written by W. Brendel and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-12-06 with total page 322 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: High altitude physiology and medicine has again become important. The excep tional achievements of mountaineers who have climbed nearly all peaks over 8,000 m without breathing equipment raise the question of maximal adaptation ca pacity of man to low oxygen pressures. More importantly, the increase in tourism in the Andes and the Himalayas brings over 10,000 people to sites at altitudes above 4,000 and 5,000 m each year. At such heights several kinds of high alti tude diseases are likely to occur, and these complications require detailed medical investigations. Medical authorities need to inform both mountaineers and tourists as to how great a physical burden can be taken in the mountain environment without risk to health. Physicians need to know what kind of prophylaxis is to be employed at high altitudes to prevent the development of diseases and what therapeutic measures should be used once high altitude diseases have occurred. Moreover, the physical condition of the indigenous population living at higher altitudes such as the Andes and the Himalayas, who are exposed continuously to the stress of high altitude, requires our attention. We have become familiar with symptoms characteristic of chronic high-altitude disease: under special conditions this popu lation has a tendency to develop pulmonary hypertension, which is associated with pulmonary edema, pulmonary congestion, and right heart failure.
Download or read book Altitude Training and Athletic Performance written by Randall L. Wilber and published by Human Kinetics. This book was released on 2004 with total page 68 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Addresses the physiology of altitude training, limitations to competing and training at altitude, and a variety of other topics related to the effect of altitude training on athletic performance.
Download or read book Effects of Endurance Training on Maximum and Submaximal VO2 and Lactate and Ventilatory Thresholds of Well trained Male Middle and Long Distance Runners written by Stephen B. Prentice and published by . This book was released on 1987 with total page 88 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Pulmonary Gas Exchange written by G. Kim Prisk and published by Biota Publishing. This book was released on 2013-08-01 with total page 88 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The lung receives the entire cardiac output from the right heart and must load oxygen onto and unload carbon dioxide from perfusing blood in the correct amounts to meet the metabolic needs of the body. It does so through the process of passive diffusion. Effective diffusion is accomplished by intricate parallel structures of airways and blood vessels designed to bring ventilation and perfusion together in an appropriate ratio in the same place and at the same time. Gas exchange is determined by the ventilation-perfusion ratio in each of the gas exchange units of the lung. In the normal lung ventilation and perfusion are well matched, and the ventilation-perfusion ratio is remarkably uniform among lung units, such that the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the pulmonary capillaries is less than 10 Torr lower than that in the alveolar space. In disease, the disruption to ventilation-perfusion matching and to diffusional transport may result in inefficient gas exchange and arterial hypoxemia. This volume covers the basics of pulmonary gas exchange, providing a central understanding of the processes involved, the interactions between the components upon which gas exchange depends, and basic equations of the process.
Download or read book Optimal Altitude for Living for the Live High and Train Low Method written by Robert R. Yates (M.S.) and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 126 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "The purpose of this study was to test the effects on distance runners of living high, 1,780 m to 2,805 m and training low, 1,250 m, (LHTL) and how they would respond to living at different altitudes. The subjects were tested by running a sea level 3000 m time trial and completing a VO2 max test before and after a 28 day stay at altitude. Distance runners, (N=24, m=16, f=8) were recruited from high-school, collegiate and club teams across the country. All athletes completed the testing. Prior to traveling to altitude the participants were tested twice running 3000 m on the track and did VO2 max peak tests . The best results from both tests were used to create a baseline effort. They then lived at altitude (1,780, 2,085, 2,454 & 2,805 m) for 28 days. Once or twice a week at altitude participants would do interval training at low altitude, 1,250 m. In addition, they also trained by doing long slow distance at altitude. Upon returning to sea level they completed two more 3000 m time trials and two more V02 peak test. A paired samples t- test was used to determine differences between pre and post efforts and differences within the separate altitude groups. The LHTL method did show a significant difference (t=4.515, p=.0001) in the pre and post altitude 3000 meter time trials for the entire group. Within the total group there appeared to be differences between training conditioning before starting the study, so a second analysis was run separating them into a conditioned and de-conditioned group. Only the de-conditioned group showed significant improvements (t=8.411, p=.0001) pre to post. Within the altitude subsets there were also significant differences for the 2,085 m group in their time trial (t=3.610, p=.015) and the absolute VO2 peak test (t=-2.748, p=.040) . Both the 2,454 m and 2,805 m groups had significant difference in both their absolute (8000- t= -4.199, p=.009, 9000- t= -3.887, p=.012) and relative (8000- t= -3.026, p=.029, 9000- t= -3.478, p=.018) VO2 peak test. There was no significant difference in pre and post altitude 3000 meter time trials for any of the four altitude levels when separating into groups . In summary, the results of this study would suggest that the use of the LHTL method is an effective way for endurance athletes to improve their performance. It would appear that the best altitude level would be between 2,085 m and 2,454 m for the LHTL model"--Document.
Download or read book Lore of Running written by Timothy Noakes and published by Human Kinetics. This book was released on 2003 with total page 948 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Dr. Noakes explores the physiology of running, all aspects of training, and recognizing, avoiding, and treating injuries. 133 illustrations.
Download or read book The Effect of Moderate Altitude on High Intensity Running Performance During a Game with Collegiate Female Soccer Players written by Jonathan David Bohner and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 32 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Competition often requires teams that reside at sea level to compete against opponents whose residence is at a moderate altitude. This may pose a potential competitive disadvantage considering that moderate altitude may cause decrements in VO[subscript 2max], distance covered, and time to exhaustion in endurance athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of altitude on game performance measures. Six NCAA Division I female soccer players (20.33 ± 1.21 y; 168 ± 6.45 cm; 62.5 ± 6.03 kg) were retrospectively examined. Comparisons were made between two competitions that were played at sea level (SL) within two weeks of a game played at a moderate altitude (1840 m) on game characteristics including high intensity running (HIR) and total distance covered (TDC). Analysis was performed on these six players who met a threshold of playing sixty or more minutes in each competition. A 10-Hz global positioning system (GPS) was used to measure distance and velocity. The rate of TDC and HIR during the game (m·min−1) and percentage of time at HIR during competition were evaluated. The two games at SL were averaged to establish baseline performance and the mean results were compared with the single game played at altitude. Paired samples t-tests were performed to determine if any mean differences existed between performance at altitude and sea level. Significant differences (p [less than] 0.05) were seen in minutes played between the games at SL (74.23 ± 2.93 min) versus altitude (83.24 ± 5.27 min). The relative distance rate during the game at altitude was lower at altitude (105.77 ± 10.19 m·min−1) than at SL (120.55 ± 8.26 m·min−1). HIR rate was greater at SL (27.65 ± 9.25 m·min−1) compared to altitude (25.07 ± 7.66 m·min−1). The percent of time spent at high intensity was not significantly different (p = 0.064), yet tended to be greater at sea level (10.4 ± 3.3%) than when they performed at altitude (9.1 ±2.2%). Soccer performance at a moderate altitude appears to reduce the rate at which players run throughout the competition, as well as their rate at a high intensity. Results suggest that teams that reside at SL may be at a competitive disadvantage when competing at altitude.
Download or read book The Effects of Intermittent Hypoxic Exposure IHE on Haemorheology of Elite Middle Distance Runners written by and published by . This book was released on 2005 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract: The present investigation posed the following questions; 1)What are the relative contributions of Plasma Viscosity (PV), Red Blood Cell Deformability Index (RBCDI) and Haematocrit (Hct) to Whole Blood Viscosity (WBV) in elite middle distance runners? 2)What is the relationship between WBV and performance in elite middle distance runners? 3)Is WBV modified by sleeping in a hypoxic environment? 4)Does sleeping in a hypoxic environment increase performance? Methodology. The present investigation was part of a larger study at the Australian Institute of Sport investigating the effect of Intermittent Hypoxic Exposure (IHE) on the performance of elite middle distance runners. IHE was regulated to simulate an altitude of 2650 metres by the use of nitrogen to generate a normobaric-hypoxia sleeping chamber (Oxygen 16.3 %, barometric pressure approximately 710 mmHg). Eleven elite middle distance runners volunteered to participate in the study. All runners were members of the Australian Institute of Sport Development Squad with a time of 232.3 ł 1.4 s for 1500 meters. There was (i) a 5 day testing block pre-IHE (at Altitude 600 m, the results of which were used to allocate runners into either the ALTITUDE or CONTROL group); (ii) 5 nights of IHE (2650 m), (iii) 3 days at home (all athletes resided in Canberra, Altitude 600 metres), (iv) 5 nights of IHE (2650 m), (v) 3 days home (600 m), (vi) 5 nights IHE (2650 m), (vii) a post-IHE 5 day testing block (600 m), (viii) 11 days out of the IHE chamber with no tests (600 m) and (ix) a post-IHE 5 day testing block (600 m). Three performance tests were completed each 5 day testing block. The performance tests included (i) long duration treadmill test (VO2max), (ii) short duration treadmill test (anaerobic capacity) and (iii) a 1500 m time trial on a synthetic 400 m track. Blood was collected from a superficial forearm vein on nine occasions. Of the nine occasions blood was collected, three were in the mornings immediately proceeding the 1500 m time trials, three were in the mornings following the first night of exposure in the IHE and the remaining three blood samples were collected in the mornings following the fifth night of exposure to the IHE. Blood was analysed for WBV, PV, Hct, Hb, Red Blood Deformability Index (RBCDI), Red Blood Cell Count (RBCC), White Blood Cell Count (WBCC), red blood cell Mean Cell Volume (MCV), percent Reticulocytes (% retics), Platelet Count (PC) and Mean Cell Volume of the Reticulocyte (MCVr). Results. 1.) 1500 m time trial results for the ALTITUDE and CONTROL groups over the three 5 day testing blocks were 241.3 ł 3.0 s vs 241.7 ł 1.9 s, 243.3 ł 1.4 s vs 238.6 ł 1.8 s and 236.6 ł 2.0 s vs 236.2 ł 0.8 s respectively. Long duration treadmill test (VO2max) time to exhaustion results for the ALTITUDE and CONTROL groups over the three 5 day testing blocks were 612 ł 18.4 s vs 588 ł 24.1 s, 645 ł 6.9 s vs 606 ł 24.1 s and 654 ł 10.2 s vs 645 ł 25.5 respectively. Short duration treadmill test to exhaustion results for the ALTITUDE and CONTROL groups over the three 5 day testing blocks were 120 ł 8.6 s vs 129 ł 12.5 s, 113 ł 2.9 s vs 126 ł 7.2 s and 146 ł 7.8 s vs 145 ł 10.7 s respectively. 2.) A significant (p=0.0004) and positive relationship was found between PV and WBV, Hct and WBV (p=0.0001), Hb and WBV (p=0.0001), RBCC and WBV (p=0.04), WBCC and WBV (p=0.04) and PC and WBV (p=0.01). A significant (p=0.05) and negative relationship was found between RBCDI and WBV. No significant relationship was found to exist between WBV and MCV, WBV and Percent Reticulocytes or WBV and MCVr. 3.) A significant (p=0.002) and positive relationship was found to exist between 1500 m time trial time and WBV and a significant (p=0.001) but negative relationship between 1500m time trial-time and Hct. No significant relationship was found to exist between the long duration treadmill test run time to exhaustion (aerobic capacity) and WBV. A significant (p=0.01) and positive relationship was found to exist between Hct and the long duration treadmill test run time to exhaustion. No significant relationship was found to exist between the short duration treadmill test time to exhaustion (anaerobic capacity) and WBV. A significant (p=0.02) and positive relationship was found to exist between short duration treadmill test time to exhaustion and Hct. 4.) Intermittent Hypoxic Exposure resulted in a significant elevation of WBV (p=0.001) in the ALTITUDE group compared to the CONTROL group over the course of the study. 5.) In elite middle distance runners, 15 nights of sleeping in IHE did not significantly improve anaerobic (short duration treadmill test), aerobic (long duration treadmill test) performance, or 1500 m time, any more than sleeping in normoxic (600 m) conditions. Conclusions. i) PV, RBCDI and Hct do significantly and positively contribute to WBV. ii) A significant and positive relationship exists between WBV and WBCC and WBV and PC. iii) There was a paradoxical situation in elite middle distance runners between WBV and 1500 m time trial time and Hct and 1500m time trial time. Increased WBV leads to slower 1500 m time trial times and a shorter time to exhaustion. Increased Hct leads to faster 1500 m time trial times and a longer time to exhaustion. We conclude; (1) that there exists an optimal combination of Hct and WBV to produce optimal performance in elite middle distance runners. (2) Whole blood is significantly more viscous as the result of IHE. (3) Intermittent hypoxic exposure did not improve 1500 m time trial performance, aerobic or anaerobic capacity in an elite middle distance runners.
Download or read book Effects of Sub elite Endurance Training on VO2max BLa Hemoglobin and Hematocrit in MSUB Male and Female Long Distance Track Athletes written by Taylor John Canfield and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 90 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Introduction: VO2max and blood lactate levels traditionally predict athletic performance. Training has the potential to enhance both measures and eventually performance; therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of a six week sub-elite endurance training (SEET) on VO2max, [BLa], [Hgb], and [Hct] within male and female collegiate long distance track athletes. Methods: Male ale and female long distance track runners (n = 11) ages 18 and 24 from Montana State University Billings (MSUB) participated in this study. At the beginning of the 2015 outdoor track season, athletes participated in two VO2max efforts (Bruce protocol) separated by a six week training period. Blood hemoglobin (Hgb), hematocrit (Hct), and resting blood lactate levels (BLa) were measured before the VO2max effort. At volitional fatigue, a post exercise, two min post exercise, and four min post exercise blood lactate measures were taken. All tests were conducted six weeks into the season. Athletes were also asked to record workouts in a training log. Results: Males' VO2max did not significantly change between test 1 and test 2, t(5) = 0.7, p = 0.258. Females also did not significantly change between test 1 and test 2 in VO2max levels, t(4) = 0.1, p = 0.463. Males did show a significant increase in VO2max when compared to females for test 1, (M = 63.8, SD = 12.5), p = 0.003 (ES = 0.77) and Test 2 (M = 63.2, SD = 11.1), p = 0.0004 (ES = 0.85). Males showed a significant difference from test 1 to test 2 in the 2 min post exercise [BLa], t(5) = +3.38 , p = 0.009, (ES = 0.40). Females (similar to males) also demonstrated significance in the 2 minute post exercise [BLa] for test 1 to test 2, t(4) = +2.4, p = 0.037, (ES = 0.44). Overall females showed significantly lower [BLa] than males both in test 1 and in test 2. There was no significant difference between test 1 to test 2 for males or females for [Hgb] and [Hct]. Females did however show significantly lower levels between test 1, (M = 44.0, SD = 5.4) t(10) = +3.75, p = 0.019, (ES = 0.65) and Test 2 (M = 44.5, SD = 4.9) t(10) = +3.45, p = 0.007, (ES = 0.73) when compared to males. Discussion: Males had significantly higher VO2max levels than females, which was expected. Due to the decreased time on the treadmill, females exhibited significantly lower [BLa] than males. Males and females only showed significant differences from test 1 to test 2 in the 2 min. post exercise [BLa], suggesting training increased the athletes’ ability to recover from the effects of [BLa] and accumulation of H+ ions. When compared to males, females exhibited significantly lower [Hgb] and [Hct], which is in accordance with norms. Conclusion: Overall, females, as compared to males, showed significantly different VO2max and hematological levels. This was expected within the short training period. Different results could be possible with a longer training period, e.g. ten weeks. Coaches and runners are encouraged to monitor these objective measures (VO2max, BLa, Hgb and Hct) throughout the entire training season in order to monitor fitness and eventually develop individualized training strategies that can optimize the objective measures.
