Download or read book Study of Supercritical CO2 Displacing Water at the Pore Scale and Its Relevance at the Core Scale and Beyond written by Jim Kuo and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 78 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The advent of carbon sequestration and rapidly decreasing cost of computing creates opportunities in reservoir characterization for carbon storage. Reservoir description has been based on conventional seismic and well-log analysis which may be uncertain in real environments. In recent years, there had been interests in understanding the underlying physics behind multiphase flows in small scales. With the advancement in imaging technology, it is possible to reconstruct real porous media for simulation purposes. All the previous studies have the information gathered at the pore scale and have been limited by the uncertainty of how to use it. Upscaling of such information has always been a topic of great challenge in the fields of geology, hydrogeology, and petroleum engineering.

Download or read book CO2 Exsolution Challenges and Opportunities in Subsurface Flow Management written by Lin Zuo and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Carbon dioxide is known to be highly soluble in water/brine, up to 5% mass fraction under reservoir conditions. In geological carbon sequestration, a large amount of injected CO2 will dissolve in brine over time. Exsolution occurs when pore pressures decline and CO2 solubility in brine decreases, resulting in the formation of a separate CO2 phase. This scenario occurs in carbon sequestration reservoirs by upward migration of CO2 saturated brine, through faults, leaking boreholes or even seals. In this way, dissolved CO2 could migrate out of storage reservoir and form a gas phase at shallower depths. Questions such as how exsolved CO2 distributes and transports, and how multiphase flows and trapping are altered in a reservoir undergoing exsolution need to be answered to achieve better subsurface flow management and risk evaluation. This study summarizes the results regarding the implications of exsolution on storage security, including pore-scale and core-scale experiments, pore-scale modeling, and numerical simulations. Applications of CO2 exsolution in Enhanced Oil Recovery are also explored. Microscopic observation of CO2 exsolution in porous media under reservoir conditions have shown that, different from an injected CO2 phase, where the gas remains interconnected and distributes at capillary equilibrium, exsolved CO2 nucleates in various locations of a porous medium, forms disconnected bubbles and propagates by repeated expansion-snap off process under capillary instability. A good correlation between bubble size distribution and pore size distribution is observed, indicating that geometry of the pore space plays an important role in controlling the mobility of brine and exsolved CO2. Core-scale multiphase flow experiments demonstrate that in the process where growing gas bubbles displace water (drainage), the water relative permeability drops significantly and is disproportionately reduced compared to gas injection, and the CO2 relative permeability remains very low, 10^-5 to 10^-3, even when the exsolved CO2 saturation increases to over 40%. Furthermore, during imbibition, exsolved CO2 remains trapped even under relatively high capillary numbers (~ 10^-6), and the water relative permeability at the imbibition endpoint is one third to one half of that with water displacing injected CO2. A model is developed to simulate the growth of exsolved gas phase in porous media under capillarity. Results are compared with experimental observations using three dimensional micro X-ray tomography. Convective transfer in the aqueous phase has been demonstrated to play an important role in controlling bubble growth and accumulation. With a Stokes flow simulator, water relative permeability curves are estimated for various sedimentary rocks under different conditions. We are capable of matching modeled gas distribution and relative permeabilities with experimental data, and extrapolating expected phase mobility reductions under reservoir conditions. CO2 exsolution does not appear to create significant risks for storage security. Due to the low mobility of exsolved CO2 and its large impact on reducing water flow, if carbonated brine migrates upwards and exsolution occurs, brine migration would be greatly reduced and limited by the presence of exsolved CO2 and the consequent low relatively permeability to brine. Similarly, if an exsolved CO2 phase were to evolve in the seal, for example, after CO2 injection stops, the effect would be to reduce the permeability to brine and the CO2 would have very low mobility. It is also possible that CO2 exsolution could have an effect on CO2-EOR recovery. This flow blocking effect is studied in experiments with water/oil/CO2 for the purpose of water conformance and oil recovery enhancement. Experiments show that exsolved CO2 performs as a secondary residual phase in porous media that effectively blocks established water flow paths and deviates water to residual oil zones, thereby increasing recovery. Overall, our studies suggest that CO2 exsolution provides an opportunity for mobility control in subsurface processes. For example, CO2 exsolution generated intentionally increases water sweep efficiency in oil reservoirs and forms gas barriers to seal high permeability zones. However, while the experimental evidence for dramatic mobility reduction is clear, the lack of simulation capability that accounts for differences between the CO2 phase morphology resulting from gas injection and gas exsolution creates challenges for modeling and hence, designing studies to exploit the mobility reduction capabilities of CO2 exsolution. Not only is history dependent behavior (hysteresis) important, but also process dependent behavior is needed. Using traditional drainage multiphase flow parameterization in simulations involving exsolution will lead to overestimates of flows and large errors in transport rates. Development of process dependent parameterizations of multiphase flow properties will be a key next step and will help to unlock the benefits from gas exsolution.

Download or read book Core Scale and Pore Scale Studies of Carbon Dioxide Migration Insaline Formations written by Timothy Kneafsey and published by . This book was released on 2005 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Understanding core scale and pore scale migration of CO2 will improve our ability to predict storage capacity and determine the effectiveness of solubility and capillary (residual CO2) trapping. While the theoretical underpinnings of multi-phase flow are well developed for oil and gas production, there are few, if any measurements relevant to CO2 storage in saline formations. To fill this gap, core scale and porescale measurements of CO2 migration in sandstone are being conducted.

Download or read book Fundamental Study of CO2 H2O mineral Interactions for Carbon Sequestration with Emphasis on the Nature of the Supercritical Fluid mineral Interface written by and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 108 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the supercritical CO2-water-mineral systems relevant to subsurface CO2 sequestration, interfacial processes at the supercritical fluid-mineral interface will strongly affect core- and reservoir-scale hydrologic properties. Experimental and theoretical studies have shown that water films will form on mineral surfaces in supercritical CO2, but will be thinner than those that form in vadose zone environments at any given matric potential. The theoretical model presented here allows assessment of water saturation as a function of matric potential, a critical step for evaluating relative permeabilities the CO2 sequestration environment. The experimental water adsorption studies, using Quartz Crystal Microbalance and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy methods, confirm the major conclusions of the adsorption/condensation model. Additional data provided by the FTIR study is that CO2 intercalation into clays, if it occurs, does not involve carbonate or bicarbonate formation, or significant restriction of CO2 mobility. We have shown that the water film that forms in supercritical CO2 is reactive with common rock-forming minerals, including albite, orthoclase, labradorite, and muscovite. The experimental data indicate that reactivity is a function of water film thickness; at an activity of water of 0.9, the greatest extent of reaction in scCO2 occurred in areas (step edges, surface pits) where capillary condensation thickened the water films. This suggests that dissolution/precipitation reactions may occur preferentially in small pores and pore throats, where it may have a disproportionately large effect on rock hydrologic properties. Finally, a theoretical model is presented here that describes the formation and movement of CO2 ganglia in porous media, allowing assessment of the effect of pore size and structural heterogeneity on capillary trapping efficiency. The model results also suggest possible engineering approaches for optimizing trapping capacity and for monitoring ganglion formation in the subsurface.

Download or read book Experimental Investigation of Supercritical CO2 Trapping Mechanisms at the Intermediate Laboratory Scale in Well defined Heterogeneous Porous Media written by and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 8 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The heterogeneous nature of typical sedimentary formations can play a major role in the propagation of the CO2 plume, eventually dampening the accumulation of mobile phase underneath the caprock. From core flooding experiments, it is also known that contrasts in capillary threshold pressure due to different pore size can affect the flow paths of the invading and displaced fluids and consequently influence the build- up of non-wetting phase (NWP) at interfaces between geological facies. The full characterization of the geologic variability at all relevant scales and the ability to make observations on the spatial and temporal distribution of the migration and trapping of supercritical CO2 is not feasible from a practical perspective. To provide insight into the impact of well-defined heterogeneous systems on the flow dynamics and trapping efficiency of supercritical CO2 under drainage and imbibition conditions, we present an experimental investigation at the meter scale conducted in synthetic sand reservoirs packed in a quasi-two-dimensional flow-cell. Two immiscible displacement experiments have been performed to observe the preferential entrapment of NWP in simple heterogeneous porous media. The experiments consisted of an injection, a fluid redistribution, and a forced imbibition stages conducted in an uncorrelated permeability field and a homogeneous base case scenario. We adopted x-ray attenuation analysis as a non-destructive technique that allows a precise measurement of phase saturations throughout the entire flow domain. By comparing a homogeneous and a heterogeneous scenario we have identified some important effects that can be attributed to capillary barriers, such as dampened plume advancement, higher non-wetting phase saturations, larger contact area between the injected and displaced phases, and a larger range of non-wetting phase saturations.

Download or read book Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2019-04-08 with total page 511 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: To achieve goals for climate and economic growth, "negative emissions technologies" (NETs) that remove and sequester carbon dioxide from the air will need to play a significant role in mitigating climate change. Unlike carbon capture and storage technologies that remove carbon dioxide emissions directly from large point sources such as coal power plants, NETs remove carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere or enhance natural carbon sinks. Storing the carbon dioxide from NETs has the same impact on the atmosphere and climate as simultaneously preventing an equal amount of carbon dioxide from being emitted. Recent analyses found that deploying NETs may be less expensive and less disruptive than reducing some emissions, such as a substantial portion of agricultural and land-use emissions and some transportation emissions. In 2015, the National Academies published Climate Intervention: Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration, which described and initially assessed NETs and sequestration technologies. This report acknowledged the relative paucity of research on NETs and recommended development of a research agenda that covers all aspects of NETs from fundamental science to full-scale deployment. To address this need, Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda assesses the benefits, risks, and "sustainable scale potential" for NETs and sequestration. This report also defines the essential components of a research and development program, including its estimated costs and potential impact.

Download or read book An Economy Based on Carbon Dioxide and Water written by Michele Aresta and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 436 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is devoted to CO2 capture and utilization (CCU) from a green, biotechnological and economic perspective, and presents the potential of, and the bottlenecks and breakthroughs in converting a stable molecule such as CO2 into specialty chemicals and materials or energy-rich compounds. The use of renewable energy (solar, wind, geothermal, hydro) and non-fossil hydrogen is a must for converting large volumes of CO2 into energy products, and as such, the authors explore and compare the availability of hydrogen from water using these sources with that using oil or methane. Divided into 13 chapters, the book offers an analysis of the conditions under which CO2 utilization is possible, and discusses CO2 capture from concentrated sources and the atmosphere. It also analyzes the technological (non-chemical) uses of CO2, carbonation of basic minerals and industrial sludge, and the microbial-catalytic-electrochemical-photoelectrochemical-plasma conversion of CO2 into chemicals and energy products. Further, the book provides examples of advanced bioelectrochemical syntheses and RuBisCO engineering, as well as a techno-energetic and economic analysis of CCU. Written by leading international experts, this book offers a unique perspective on the potential of the various technologies discussed, and a vision for a sustainable future. Intended for graduates with a good understanding of chemistry, catalysis, biotechnology, electrochemistry and photochemistry, it particularly appeals to researchers (in academia and industry) and university teachers.

Download or read book Dynamics of Supercritical CO2 Foam in Porous Media with CO2 Soluble Surfactuants written by Guangwei Ren and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page 606 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: CO2 flood has become a routine technology for enhanced oil recovery worldwide. However, the problem of poor sweep efficiency has been frequently encountered in CO2 flooding due to the presence of preferential flow paths such as high permeability zones or fracture networks. The objective of this work is to improve robustness of supercritical CO2 foam as a mobility controlling agent, surfactant utilization, and reservoir sweep efficiency in CO2 flooding. The focus will be the unconventional foam process with proprietary non-ionic CO2 soluble surfactants. The properties of these surfactants including solubility in CO2, partitioning between CO2 and water phases, and static adsorption on rock are directly measured versus temperatures and pressures. For the first time the unconventional foam process with CO2 soluble surfactant has been systematically studied from the viewpoint of foam improved CO2 flood and compared with conventional foam (stabilized with a widely used conventional CO2 insoluble surfactant. Both Silurian carbonates and Berea sandstones were used in this study. The effect of reservoir heterogeneity such as stratification and natural fractures are also investigated. For the first time, foam behavior is probed in fractured system with variable fracture apertures, foam qualities, injection rates and rock permeabilities. Micro-scaled model is also developed to visualize foam propagation in fracture flow. All the measured surfactant properties are then used to model foam transport on a field scale using a commercial reservoir simulation. The advantages of CO2 soluble surfactants are quantified for different injection strategies. Optimization of surfactant partition coefficient for field-scale foam process is performed to determine the variation of surfactant partitioning effect. A new method is proposed, which can be used in conjunction with the cloud point measurements, to obtain information directly on the soluble portion of a given sample. The partitioning of nonionic hydrocarbon surfactants between water and brine and CO2 as a function of electrolyte concentration, temperature and pressure are also investigated. These functional relationships have been rarely found in the literature. The solubility of the non-ionic surfactant in CO2 increases with pressure and gradually decreases with temperature. The partitioning of this surfactant between CO2 and water phases is much more sensitive to temperature than pressure. Strong foam development in Silurian cores is observed for both non-ionic and anionic surfactants while the adsorption of the latter surfactant is almost three times higher. The foam with CO2 soluble surfactants is much more robust in water displacement due to both reduced surfactant adsorption and surfactant partitioning. However, the adsorption magnitudes of the non-ionic and anionic surfactants are very close in sandstone, but foam with CO2 soluble surfactants still outperforms that with conventional surfactants because of surfactant partitioning. A new experimental method to determinate dynamic CO2 foam in artificially fractured carbonate cores at high pressure is presented. The rheology of foam in fractures is well distinguished from that in matrix. Foam propagation decreases with increasing fracture aperture at very low shear rate. However, this relationship is strongly influenced by matrix permeability. A strong correlation between foam performance and injection quality was not observed an increase in total injection rate promote foam development. In agreement with the above experimental observations, foam with CO2 soluble surfactant on a field scale can improve injectivity, surfactant transport, and foam propagation in regions where CO2 mobility control is needed. The benefit of co-injection and alternating injection could be significantly enhanced with CO2 soluble surfactant. The ability of surfactant to partition between CO2 and water phase reduces the effect of gas and water slug sizes on foam performance. A new injection strategy where surfactant is injected in CO2 without water injection gives the highest sweep efficiency. This particular foam process shows best performance under constant rate injection mode. Foam performance and surfactant transport is governed not only by constrained injection strategies, but also surfactant partition coefficient. Both experiments and simulations demonstrate that good surfactant transport with CO2 soluble surfactant improves foam robustness once local surfactant concentration exceeds a critical concentration. The CO2 soluble surfactant and its injection strategies presented in this work not only improve the robustness of foam performance but also reduce the overall cost of foam process. The optimal partition of the surfactant between the CO2 and aqueous phases minimize the loss of expensive surfactant in water that is never contacted with CO2. The results from this study enable us to tailor properties of CO2 soluble surfactants (i.e. partition coefficient and solubility in CO2) to a wide range of reservoir conditions and optimal injection strategies. This novel CO2 soluble surfactant concept diversifies injection strategies with respect to operational constraints, broadening the application of foam process.

Download or read book Carbon Dioxide Sequestration in Geological Media written by Matthias Grobe and published by AAPG. This book was released on 2010-03-01 with total page 702 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Over the past 20 years, the concept of storing or permanently storing carbon dioxide in geological media has gained increasing attention as part of the important technology option of carbon capture and storage within a portfolio of options aimed at reducing anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases to the earths atmosphere. This book is structured into eight parts, and, among other topics, provides an overview of the current status and challenges of the science, regional assessment studies of carbon dioxide geological sequestration potential, and a discussion of the economics and regulatory aspects of carbon dioxide sequestration.

Download or read book A Detailed Study of CO2 brine Capillary Trapping Mechanisms as Applied to Geologic Carbon Storage Final Report written by and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 4 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The proposed research focuses on improved fundamental understanding of the efficiency of physical trapping mechanisms, and as such will provide the basis for subsequent upscaling efforts. The overarching hypothesis of the proposed research is that capillary pressure plays a significant role in capillary trapping of CO2, especially during the water imbibition stage of the sequestration process. We posit that the relevant physics of the sequestration process is more complex than is currently captured in relative permeability models, which are often based on so-called trapping models to represent relative permeability hysteresis. Our 4 main questions, guiding the 4 main tasks of the proposed research, are as follows: (1) What is the morphology of capillary trapped CO2 at the pore scale as a function of temperature, pressure, brine concentration, interfacial tension, and pore-space morphology under injection and subsequent imbibition? (2) Is it possible to describe the capillary trapping process using formation-dependent, but otherwise unique continuum-scale functions in permeability-capillary pressure, interfacial area and saturation space, rather than hysteretic functions in permeability-saturation or capillary pressure-saturation space? (3) How do continuum-scale relationships between kr-Pc-S-Anw developed based on pore-scale observations compare with traditional models incorporating relative permeability hysteresis (such as Land's and other models,) and with observations at the core (5-10cm) scale? (4) How can trapped CO2 volume be optimized via engineered injection and sweep strategies, and as a function of formation type (incl. heterogeneity)?

Download or read book Investigations Into CO2 Immiscible Displacements from Pore Scale to Core Scale written by Xiaoqiang Jin and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book The Solubility of Supercritical CO2 Into Pure Water and Synthetic Utsira Pore Water written by C. A. Rochelle and published by . This book was released on 2002 with total page 28 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book An Experimental Study of Supercritical CO2 Flow in Pipes and Porous Micro models for Carbon Sequestration Applications written by and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book The Combined Influence of Gravity Flow Rate and Small Scale Heterogeneity on Core scale Multiphase Flow of CO2 and Brine written by Chia-Wei Kuo and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The purpose of the research is to understand and predict the combined influences of viscous, gravity and capillary forces in heterogeneous rocks over the range of conditions relevant to storage of CO2 in deep underground geological formations. The study begins by quantifying the separate and combined influences of flow rate, gravity, and sub-core capillary heterogeneity on brine displacement using the 3-D simulator TOUGH2 (Kuo et al. 2010). These studies demonstrate that the average saturation depends on the capillary and gravity numbers in a predictable way. Based on the insight gained from numerical simulation, this work develops an approximate semi-analytical solution for predicting the average steady-state saturation during multiphase core flood experiments over a wide range of capillary and gravity numbers as well as a wide range of heterogeneity. Although computational technology has improved greatly, running high-resolution 3D models including capillarity, gravity, and capillary heterogeneity still takes a significant amount of computational effort. The new solution provided here is a quick and easy way to estimate the flow regimes for horizontal core floods. A two dimensional analysis of the governing equations for the multiphase flow system at steady-state is used to develop the approximate semi-analytical solution. We have developed a new criterion to identify the viscous-dominated regime at the core scale where the average saturation is independent of flow rate. Variations of interfacial tension, core permeability, length of the core, and the effects of buoyancy, capillary and viscous forces are all accounted for in the semi-analytical solutions. We have also shown that three dimensionless numbers (NB, Ngv, Rl) and two critical gravity numbers (Ngv, c1, Ngv, c2) are required to properly capture the balance of viscous, gravity, and capillary forces. There is good agreement between the average saturations calculated from the 3-D simulations and the analytical model. This new model can be used to design and interpret multiphase flow core-flood experiments, gain better understanding of multiphase flow displacement efficiency over a wide range of conditions and for different fluid pairs, and perhaps even provide a tool for studying the influence of sub-grid scale multiphase flow phenomena on reservoir-scale simulations. One practical application for the new semi-analytical solution is to help design and interpret core flood experiments, including assuring that relative permeability measurements are made in the viscous dominated regime, evaluating potential flow rate dependence, influence of core-dimension on a multiphase flow experiments, and influence of fluid properties on the experiments. New guidelines and suggestions for making relative permeability measurements are presented. Results are based on a combination of high resolution of 3D simulations and core-flooding experiments with X-ray CT scanning of saturation distributions. Effects of flow rate, permeability, surface tension, core length, boundary conditions, sub-core scale heterogeneity, and gravity over a range of fractional flows of CO2 are systematically investigated. Synthetic "data sets" are generated using TOUGH2 and subsequently used to calculate relative permeability curves. A comparison between the input relative permeability curves and "calculated" relative permeability is used to assess the accuracy of the "measured" values. Results show that for a modified capillary number (Ncv=kLpc*A/H2[mu]CO2qt) smaller than 15, flows are viscous dominated. Under these conditions, saturation depends only on the fractional flow and is independent of flow rate, gravity, permeability, core length and interfacial tension. For modified capillary numbers less than 15, accurate whole-core relative permeability measurements can be obtained regardless of the orientation of the core and for a high degree of heterogeneity under a range of relevant and practical conditions. Importantly, the transition from the viscous to gravity/capillary dominated flow regimes occurs at much higher flow rates for heterogeneous rocks. For modified capillary numbers larger than 15, saturation gradients develop along the length of the core and accurate relative permeability measurements are not obtained using traditional steady state methods. However, if capillary pressure measurements at the end of the core are available, or can be estimated from independently measured capillary pressure curves and the measured saturation at the inlet and outlet of the core, accurate relative permeability measurements can be obtained even when there is a small saturation gradient across the core.

Download or read book Flow and Transport in Subsurface Environment written by Natarajan Narayanan and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-04-26 with total page 370 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents a collection of contributions from experts working on flow and transport in porous media around the globe. The book includes chapters authored by engineers, scientists, and mathematicians on single and multiphase flow and transport in homogeneous as well as heterogeneous porous media. Addressing various experimental, analytical, and modeling aspects of transport in sub-surface domains, the book offers a valuable resource for graduate students, researchers, and professionals alike.

Download or read book High Fidelity Computational Analysis of CO2 Trapping at Pore Scales written by and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With an alarming rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) emission from anthropogenic sources, CO2 sequestration has become an attractive choice to mitigate the emission. Some popular storage media for CO2 are oil reservoirs, deep coal-bed, and deep oceanic-beds. These have been used for the long term CO2 storage. Due to special lowering viscosity and surface tension property of CO2, it has been widely used for enhanced oil recovery. The sites for CO2 sequestration or enhanced oil recovery mostly consist of porous rocks. Lack of knowledge of molecular mobility under confinement and molecule-surface interactions between CO2 and natural porous media results in generally governed by unpredictable absorption kinetics and total absorption capacity for injected fluids, and therefore, constitutes barriers to the deployment of this technology. Therefore, it is important to understand the flow dynamics of CO2 through the porous microstructures at the finest scale (pore-scale) to accurately predict the storage potential and long-term dynamics of the sequestered CO2. This report discusses about pore-network flow modeling approach using variational method and analyzes simulated results this method simulations at pore-scales for idealized network and using Berea Sandstone CT scanned images. Variational method provides a promising way to study the kinetic behavior and storage potential at the pore scale in the presence of other phases. The current study validates variational solutions for single and two-phase Newtonian and single phase non-Newtonian flow through angular pores for special geometries whose analytical and/or empirical solutions are known. The hydraulic conductance for single phase flow through a triangular duct was also validated against empirical results derived from lubricant theory.

Download or read book Relative Permeability Experiments of Carbon Dioxide Displacing Brine and Their Implications for Carbon Sequestration written by Jonathan Levine and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Future reservoir-scale modeling efforts should incorporate sensitivity to relative permeability. Assuming the majority of reservoirs are pressure limited and if the experimental results reported here are found to apply to other lithologies as well, geologic carbon sequestration at scale will require approximately twice the number of storage sites, wells, reservoirs, and the related infrastructure, personnel, and cost.