Download or read book Nanoparticle block Copolymer Self assembly written by Scott Charles Warren and published by . This book was released on 2007 with total page 394 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Self Assembly written by Ramanathan Nagarajan and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2019-01-07 with total page 364 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An introduction to the state-of-the-art of the diverse self-assembly systems Self-Assembly: From Surfactants to Nanoparticles provides an effective entry for new researchers into this exciting field while also giving the state of the art assessment of the diverse self-assembling systems for those already engaged in this research. Over the last twenty years, self-assembly has emerged as a distinct science/technology field, going well beyond the classical surfactant and block copolymer molecules, and encompassing much larger and complex molecular, biomolecular and nanoparticle systems. Within its ten chapters, each contributed by pioneers of the respective research topics, the book: Discusses the fundamental physical chemical principles that govern the formation and properties of self-assembled systems Describes important experimental techniques to characterize the properties of self-assembled systems, particularly the nature of molecular organization and structure at the nano, meso or micro scales. Provides the first exhaustive accounting of self-assembly derived from various kinds of biomolecules including peptides, DNA and proteins. Outlines methods of synthesis and functionalization of self-assembled nanoparticles and the further self-assembly of the nanoparticles into one, two or three dimensional materials. Explores numerous potential applications of self-assembled structures including nanomedicine applications of drug delivery, imaging, molecular diagnostics and theranostics, and design of materials to specification such as smart responsive materials and self-healing materials. Highlights the unifying as well as contrasting features of self-assembly, as we move from surfactant molecules to nanoparticles. Written for students and academic and industrial scientists and engineers, by pioneers of the research field, Self-Assembly: From Surfactants to Nanoparticles is a comprehensive resource on diverse self-assembly systems, that is simultaneously introductory as well as the state of the art.

Download or read book Block Copolymer Self assembly Fundamentals and Applications in Formulation of Nano structured Fluids written by Biswajit Sarkar and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 213 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Dispersions of nanoparticles in polymer matrices form hybrid materials that can exhibit superior structural and functional properties and find applications in e. g. thermo-plastics, electronics, polymer electrolytes, catalysis, paint formulations, and drug delivery. Control over the particle location and orientation in the polymeric matrices are essential in order to realize the enhanced mechanical, electrical, and optical properties of the nanohybrids. Block copolymers, composed of two or more different monomers, are promising for controlling particle location and orientation because of their ability to organize into ordered nanostructures. Fundamental questions pertaining to nanoparticle-polymer interfacial interactions remain open and formulate the objectives of our investigation. Particle-polymer enthalpic and entropic interactions control the nanoparticle dispersion in polymer matrices. Synthetic chemical methods for modifying the particle surface in order to control polymer-particle interactions are involved and large scale production is not possible. In the current approach, a physical method is employed to control polymer-particle interactions. The use of commercially available solvents is found to be effective in modifying particle-polymer interfacial interactions. The approach is applicable to a wide range of particle-polymer systems and can thereby enable large scale processing of polymer nanohybrids. The systems of silica nanoparticles dispersed in long-range or short-range self-assembled structures of aqueous poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) block copolymers (Pluronics) is considered here. The effect of various parameters such as the presence of organic solvents, pH, and particle size on the block copolymer organization and the ensuing particle-polymer interactions are investigated. Favorable surface interactions between the deprotonated silica nanoparticle and PEO-rich domain facilitate particle incorporation in the cylindrical lyotropic mesophase formed by hydrated PEO-PPO-PEO block copolymer. The amount of nanoparticle dispersed is limited to 10 wt% due to restrictions posed by a combination of thermodynamics and geometry. Incorporation of deprotonated nanoparticles by replacing equal mass of water did not affect the lattice parameter of the hexagonal lyotropic liquid crystalline structures formed by hydrated PEO-PPO-PEO block copolymer. The incorporation of protonated NPs resulted in an increase in the lattice parameter due to stronger nanoparticle-polymer enthalpic interactions. Two dimensional swelling exponent (d ~ Φpolymer-0. 65) suggests that deprotonated nanoparticles are located inside the PEO-rich domains, away from PEO-PPO interfaces. The presence of organic solvents screen the effect of protonated NPs on the lattice parameter of the hexagonal lyotropic liquid crystalline structures formed by hydrated PEO-PPO-PEO block copolymer.

Download or read book Computational Study of Self assembly in Block Copolymer superparamagnetic Nanoparticle Composites Under External Magnetic Fields written by Vinay Raman and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 147 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This computational and theoretical study investigates the self-assembly of superparamagnetic nanoparticles and block copolymers under external magnetic fields. A variety of morphological transitions are observed based on the field orientation, nanoparticle loading, and selectivity of the nanoparticles for the blocks. For symmetric block copolymers, chaining of superparamagnetic nanoparticles under in-plane magnetic fields is shown to achieve long range orientational order of the block copolymer nanodomains and is found to be dependent on nanoparticle size, volume fraction and magnetization strength. A critical selectivity of the particles for one nanodomain is observed, above which strong alignment results and below which comparatively disordered structures are formed. Higher magnetization strengths are found to reduce equilibrium defect densities in the nematic-isotropic ordering of lamellar thin films, as corroborated by scaling arguments. For asymmetric coil fractions forming hexagonal block copolymer nanostructure, the inplane field induced chaining of the nanoparticles selective for the minority block, leads to the formation of stripe phases oriented parallel to the magnetic field. Furthermore, in-plane field induced chaining of nanoparticles selective for the majority block leads to alignment of hexagonal morphology with 100 direction oriented parallel to the external magnetic field. Out of plane magnetic fields induce repulsive dipolar interactions between the nanoparticles that annihilate the defects in the hexagonal morphology of the block copolymer when the nanoparticle is selective for the minority block. Honeycomb lattices are obtained using nanoparticles selective for majority block under out of plane magnetic fields for certain specific nanoparticle loadings. Commensurability of nanoparticle size and loadings with the block copolymer structure is critical in optimizing the ordering of the final composite. Kinetics of alignment in block copolymer nanocomposites is studied using External Potential Dynamics (EPD) method, wherein an equivalent evolution equation for potential fields is solved instead of conservation equation for the monomer segments. The dynamics study reveals an interesting interplay of nanoparticle mobility, dipolar interaction strength and nanoparticle-polymer interaction strength on the rate of alignment of domains.

Download or read book Mixing and Reaction in the Formation of Block Copolymer Self assembly of Nanoparticles written by Jessica L. Anacker and published by . This book was released on 2005 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Directed Self assembly of Block Co polymers for Nano manufacturing written by Roel Gronheid and published by Woodhead Publishing. This book was released on 2015-07-17 with total page 328 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The directed self-assembly (DSA) method of patterning for microelectronics uses polymer phase-separation to generate features of less than 20nm, with the positions of self-assembling materials externally guided into the desired pattern. Directed self-assembly of Block Co-polymers for Nano-manufacturing reviews the design, production, applications and future developments needed to facilitate the widescale adoption of this promising technology. Beginning with a solid overview of the physics and chemistry of block copolymer (BCP) materials, Part 1 covers the synthesis of new materials and new processing methods for DSA. Part 2 then goes on to outline the key modelling and characterization principles of DSA, reviewing templates and patterning using topographical and chemically modified surfaces, line edge roughness and dimensional control, x-ray scattering for characterization, and nanoscale driven assembly. Finally, Part 3 discusses application areas and related issues for DSA in nano-manufacturing, including for basic logic circuit design, the inverse DSA problem, design decomposition and the modelling and analysis of large scale, template self-assembly manufacturing techniques. Authoritative outlining of theoretical principles and modeling techniques to give a thorough introdution to the topic Discusses a broad range of practical applications for directed self-assembly in nano-manufacturing Highlights the importance of this technology to both the present and future of nano-manufacturing by exploring its potential use in a range of fields

Download or read book Block Copolymer Nanocomposites written by Galder Kortaberria and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2016-10-14 with total page 360 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a comprehensive overview of the synthesis and characterization of nanocomposites based on block copolymers. Because of the self-assembly capability of block copolymers for the generation of nanostructures, besides their ability to nanostructure thermosetting matrices such as epoxy and polyester, binary or ternary nanocomposites can be prepared with different nanofillers such as nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes. The book starts with a review on nanocomposites based on block copolymers and nanoparticles synthesized with the use of surfactants, followed by a review on nanocomposites with metallic nanoparticles with polymer brushes and those with carbon nanotubes. A chapter is devoted to binary systems based on block copolymers and nanoparticles synthesized by sol-gel. A review on nanocomposites based on thermosetting matrices nanostructured with block copolymers (amphiphilic or chemically modified) is also presented for both epoxy and polyester resins. The work on ternary systems based on thermosetting matrices, block copolymers, and nanoparticles is presented next. The book concludes with a discussion on nanocomposites based on epoxy and block copolymers with azobenzene groups for optical purposes.

Download or read book Self Assembly Spatial and Size Control of Gold Nanoparticle Block Copolymer Conjugates written by Melissa Suzanne Köhn Serrano and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Surface Modification of Nanoparticles for Targeted Drug Delivery written by Yashwant V Pathak and published by Springer. This book was released on 2019-03-11 with total page 499 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This unique book is the only one to discuss various new techniques developed to enhance the application of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems using surface modification of nanoparticles. The understanding of the surface characteristics nano-particles is growing significantly with the advent of new analytical techniques. Polymer chemistry is contributing to the development of many new versatile polymers which have abilities to accommodate many different, very reactive chemical groups, and can be used as a diagnostic tool, for better targeting, for more effective therapeutic results as well as for reducing the toxic and side effects of the drugs. Surface modification of such polymeric nanoparticles has been found by many scientists to enhance the application of nanoparticles and also allows the nano particles to carry specific drug molecule and disease /tumor specific antibodies which refine and improve drug delivery. Surface Modification of Nanoparticles for Targeted Drug Delivery is a collection essential information with various applications of surface modification of nanoparticles and their disease specific applications for therapeutic purposes.

Download or read book A Multi step Self assembly Route to Three dimensional Block Copolymer semiconducting Nanoparticle Photonic Arrays with Structural Hierarchy written by Huda Yusuf and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 348 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A new multi-step self-assembly route to polymer-semiconducting nanoparticle photonic structures is described. The multi-step self-assembly strategy targets complex hierarchical structures in which organization of cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanoparticles on progressively longer length scales is introduced via a series of three self-assembly steps. each involving building blocks of increasing structural complexity. Each self assembly step can be described as follows: 1) SA1: self-assembly of PS-b-PAA to form block ionomer reverse micelles, followed by synthesis of a single CdS semiconducting nanoparticle in each core, forming the hybrid building blocks PS-CdS: 2) SA2: self-assembly of blends of PS-CdS and PS-b-PAA stabilizing chains in DMF/water mixtures by addition of water to form spherical nanoparticle assemblies, termed large compound micelles (LCMs); 3) SA3: self-assembly of LCMs into ordered close packed arrays by slow water evaporation. The kinetic freezing of building blocks at each stage offers the potential for unique control of nanoparticle self-assembly step since each step is "locked in", allowing structural features determined by the subsequent step to be independently tuned through a new set of experimental variables. Chapter 2 and 3 of this thesis investigate aspects of size and polydispersity control of spherical nanoparticle assemblies in the SA2 self-assembly step. Chapter 4 demonstrates that LCMs can be further assembled (SA3 step) to form three-dimensional hierarchical arrays.

Download or read book Ordered Porous Mesostructured Materials from Nanoparticle block Copolymer Self assembly written by and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The invention provides mesostructured materials and methods of preparing mesostructured materials including metal-rich mesostructured nanoparticle-block copolymer hybrids, porous metal-nonmetal nanocomposite mesostructures, and ordered metal mesostructures with uniform pores. The nanoparticles can be metal, metal alloy, metal mixture, intermetallic, metal-carbon, metal-ceramic, semiconductor-carbon, semiconductor-ceramic, insulator-carbon or insulator-ceramic nanoparticles, or combinations thereof. A block copolymer/ligand-stabilized nanoparticle solution is cast, resulting in the formation of a metal-rich (or semiconductor-rich or insulator-rich) mesostructured nanoparticle-block copolymer hybrid. The hybrid is heated to an elevated temperature, resulting in the formation of an ordered porous nanocomposite mesostructure. A nonmetal component (e.g., carbon or ceramic) is then removed to produce an ordered mesostructure with ordered and large uniform pores.

Download or read book Multi step Self assembly Route to Three dimensional Block Copolymer semiconducting Nanoparticle Photonic Arrays with Structural Hierarchy written by and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A new multi-step self-assembly route to polymer-semiconducting nanoparticle photonic structures is described. The multi-step self-assembly strategy targets complex hierarchical structures in which organization of cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanoparticles on progressively longer length scales is introduced via a series of three self-assembly steps. each involving building blocks of increasing structural complexity. Each self assembly step can be described as follows: 1) SA1: self-assembly of PS-b-PAA to form block ionomer reverse micelles, followed by synthesis of a single CdS semiconducting nanoparticle in each core, forming the hybrid building blocks PS-CdS: 2) SA2: self-assembly of blends of PS-CdS and PS-b-PAA stabilizing chains in DMF/water mixtures by addition of water to form spherical nanoparticle assemblies, termed large compound micelles (LCMs); 3) SA3: self-assembly of LCMs into ordered close packed arrays by slow water evaporation. The kinetic freezing of building blocks at each stage offers the potential for unique control of nanoparticle self-assembly step since each step is "locked in", allowing structural features determined by the subsequent step to be independently tuned through a new set of experimental variables. Chapter 2 and 3 of this thesis investigate aspects of size and polydispersity control of spherical nanoparticle assemblies in the SA2 self-assembly step. Chapter 4 demonstrates that LCMs can be further assembled (SA3 step) to form three-dimensional hierarchical arrays.

Download or read book Block Copolymer Self assembly written by Gayashani Kanchana Ginige and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Molecular self-assembly is the basis of structure in nature. While of far less complexity than a natural system, the same physical rules apply to simple synthetic designed systems that spontaneously form self-assembled structures and patterns. The self-assembly of block copolymers (BCPs) is an interesting example, as it can be harnessed to form both 2D (in thin films) and 3D (in bulk) porous and chemically controlled morphologies at scale. The self-assembly of BCPs on surfaces is of interest for a range of applications, but due to the enormous economic driver that is the computer industry, this direction has been pushed most strongly. Self-assembly of BCPs has been described in the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (the ITRS, and now the IDRS) for almost two decades for lithography on semiconductors and for patterning the magnetic material of hard drives. As a result, there has been much academic interest, both fundamental and applied, to meet the challenges as outlined in the ITRS/IDRS due to the promise of this scalable and low-cost nanopatterning approach. More recently, the remarkable work harnessing BCP self-assembly has been directed to other applications, one being optical metamaterials; this thesis will add to this growing body of science. One aspect holding BCP self-assembly back is the defectivity in the patterned material or surface; some applications are more defect tolerant than others, but hard drive and other computer-industry applications have very low tolerance for defects. It is, therefore, important to have systematic control over the self-assembly process as well as quality of the final patterns generated by BCP self-assembly for these applications and others not yet imagined. This thesis examines the defectivity of the hexagonal nanoscale patterns derived from BCP self-assembly and looks at extending them to produce nanoscale patterns of native and non-native morphologies that have plasmonic properties. This thesis is divided into two parts. The first part deals with optimization of solvent vapor annealing of BCP self-assembly, the critical step in which the actual nanoscale phase segregation takes place; in this case, it uses a controlled solvent vapor flow annealing apparatus, design of experiment and machine learning approaches. In this work, it was discovered that slight variations in the initial film thickness on the order of even a couple of nanometers and the final swelling degree have a huge influence on the defectivity and the quality of the resulting patterns. Next, machine learning approaches are applied to compile qualitative and quantitative defect analysis into a single figure of merit that is mapped across an experimental parameter space. This approach enables faster convergence of results to arrive at the optimum annealing conditions for the annealing of thin films of BCPs of PS-b-PDMS that generate nanoscale hexagonal patterns of silica dots with a minimum number of defects. In the second part of the thesis, mixed metal/oxide double layer patterning was studied using sequential self-assembly of BCPs. The second part of the thesis starts with optimization of reactive ion etching (RIE) for producing single layer metal nanopatterns from metal ion-loaded thin films of PS-b-P2VP BCPs to generate single layers of hexagonal metal nanopatterns that can withstand a second consecutive reactive ion etching step. The goal of this work is to enable density doubled and/or Moiré pattern formation via self-assembly of a second layer of BCP on the initial pattern prepared by self assembly of either the same or different BCP, as will be described in Chapter 4. Therefore, the initial pattern produced via BCP self-assembly and RIE etching would need to withstand a second treatment step of BCP self-assembly and RIE. While single layer nanopatterns of Au and Pt nanoparticles can be produced without much trouble, these resulting patterns could not be applied for density multiplication of metal-metal nanopatterns since the metal dots become too small and disordered. To demonstrate that metal nanoparticles derived from BCPs could be used, at least, to produce a mixed metal oxide/metal patterns, arrays of SiOx dots were first produced from PS-b-PDMS BCPs and then layered a BCP of PS-b-P2VP that was subsequently loaded with gold or platinum ions. Upon RIE etching, the BCP is removed and the SiOx/Au or Pt nanoparticle arrays were produced. Based upon the outcomes of the optimization of the etching work, mixed Au-Pt commensurate and incommensurate hexagonal lattice patterns were produced on both silicon and quartz substrates. Finally, the optical properties of these mixed metal Pt-Au bilayer patterns were studied. They demonstrated interesting plasmonic properties of the bilayer patterns, including consistent observation of extended plasmon bands that suggest coupling of the localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs) of the gold nanoparticles through proximal platinum nanoparticles when arrayed in periodic patterns.

Download or read book Self assembly of Block Copolymers for the Fabrication of Functional Nanomaterials written by Li Yao and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 150 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This dissertation explores the use of block copolymers which can self-assemble into different morphologies as templates to fabricate nanostructured materials. The first section (Chapters 2-4) reports the formation of mesoporous silica films with spherical, cylindrical and bicontinuous pores up to 40 nm in diameter through replicating the morphologies of the solid block copolymer (BCP) templates, polystyrene-b-poly(tert-butyl acrylate) (PS-b-PtBA), via phase selective condensation of tetraethylorthosilicate in supercritical CO2. Next, directed self-assembly was used to control the orientation of cylindrical domains in PS-b-PtBA templates. Large-area aligned mesochannels in silica films with diameters tunable between 5 and 30 nm were achieved through the replication of oriented templates via scCO2 infusion. The long-range alignment of mesochannels was confirmed through GISAXS with sample stage azimuthal rotation. In the second section (Chapters 5-6), enantiopure tartaric acid was used as an additive to dramatically improve ordering in poly(ethylene oxide-block-tert-butyl acrylate) (PEO-b-PtBA) copolymers. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray scattering were used to study the phase behavior and morphologies within both bulk and thin films. With the addition of a photo acid generator, photo-induced disorder in the PEO-b-PtBA/tartaric acid composite system was achieved upon UV exposure which deprotected the PtBA block to yield poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), which is phase-miscible with PEO. Area-selective UV exposure using a photo-mask was applied with the assistance of trace amounts of base quencher to achieve high-resolution hierarchical patterns. Helical superstructures were observed by TEM in this BCP/chiral additive system with 3D handedness confirmed by TEM tomography. In the last section (Chapter 7), ultra-high loadings of nanoparticles into target domains of block copolymer composites were achieved by blending the block copolymer hosts with small molecule additives that exhibit strong interactions with one of the polymer chain segments and with the nanoparticle ligands via hydrogen bonding. The addition of 40 wt% D-tartaric acid to poly(ethylene oxide-block-tert-butyl acrylate) (PEO-b-PtBA) enabled the loading of up to 150 wt% of 4-hydroxythiophenol functionalized Au nanoparticles relative to the mass of the target hydrophilic domain. This was equivalent to over 40% Au by mass of the resulting well ordered composite as measured by thermal gravimetric analysis.

Download or read book A Multi step Self assembly Route to Three dimensional Block Copolymer semiconducting Nanoparticle Photonic Arrays with Structural Hierarchy written by Huda Yusuf and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A new multi-step self-assembly route to polymer-semiconducting nanoparticle photonic structures is described. The multi-step self-assembly strategy targets complex hierarchical structures in which organization of cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanoparticles on progressively longer length scales is introduced via a series of three self-assembly steps. each involving building blocks of increasing structural complexity. Each self assembly step can be described as follows: 1) SA1: self-assembly of PS-b-PAA to form block ionomer reverse micelles, followed by synthesis of a single CdS semiconducting nanoparticle in each core, forming the hybrid building blocks PS-CdS: 2) SA2: self-assembly of blends of PS-CdS and PS-b-PAA stabilizing chains in DMF/water mixtures by addition of water to form spherical nanoparticle assemblies, termed large compound micelles (LCMs); 3) SA3: self-assembly of LCMs into ordered close packed arrays by slow water evaporation. The kinetic freezing of building blocks at each stage offers the potential for unique control of nanoparticle self-assembly step since each step is "locked in", allowing structural features determined by the subsequent step to be independently tuned through a new set of experimental variables. Chapter 2 and 3 of this thesis investigate aspects of size and polydispersity control of spherical nanoparticle assemblies in the SA2 self-assembly step. Chapter 4 demonstrates that LCMs can be further assembled (SA3 step) to form three-dimensional hierarchical arrays.

Download or read book Dynamic Temperature Gradient Directed Self assembly of Block Copolymer nanoparticle Thin Films written by Ren Zhang (Chemical engineer) and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 57 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Block copolymers (BCPs) have received considerable attention as a promising platform for synthesis of heterogeneous nanomaterials and fabrication of nanostructures with improved electrical, optical, or mechanical properties. Here we demonstrate a facile fabrication strategy towards long-range ordered block copolymer/nanoparticle (BCP/NP) hybrid structures utilizing a novel dynamic thermal field-induced gradient soft-shear process (CZA-SS). Structural uniformity of nanocomposite films is quantified in terms of the orientation order parameter (S) and it is demonstrated that CZA-SS can facilitate unidirectional alignment with low loading fraction of AuNP additives. The application of sharp dynamic thermal gradient process (CZA-S) is shown to result in the morphological transition from out-of plane to in-plane cylinder orientation that is rationalized as a consequence of suppressed normal expansion of AuNP filled BCP films. Our current work may open new avenues for fabrication of unidirectional oriented hybrid materials,

Download or read book Block Copolymers in Nanoscience written by Massimo Lazzari and published by Wiley-VCH. This book was released on 2007-06-27 with total page 447 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This first book to take a detailed look at one of the key focal points where nanotechnology and polymers meet provides both an introductory view for beginners as well as in-depth knowledge for specialists in the various research areas involved. It investigates all types of application for block copolymers: as tools for fabricating other nanomaterials, as structural components in hybrid materials and nanocomposites, and as functional materials. The multidisciplinary approach covers all stages from chemical synthesis and characterization, presenting applications from physics and chemistry to biology and medicine, such as micro- and nanolithography, membranes, optical labeling, drug delivery, as well as sensory and analytical uses.