EBookClubs

Read Books & Download eBooks Full Online

EBookClubs

Read Books & Download eBooks Full Online

Book Intelligent Reconfigurable Surfaces  IRS  for Prospective 6G Wireless Networks

Download or read book Intelligent Reconfigurable Surfaces IRS for Prospective 6G Wireless Networks written by Muhammad Ali Imran and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2022-12-13 with total page 308 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Authoritative resource covering preliminary concepts and advanced concerns in the field of IRS and its role in 6G wireless systems Intelligent Reconfigurable Surfaces (IRS) for Prospective 6G Wireless Networks provides an in-depth treatment of the fundamental physics behind reconfigurable metasurfaces, also known as intelligent reflecting surfaces (IRS), and outlines the research roadmap towards their development as a low-complexity and energy-efficient solution aimed at turning the wireless environment into a software-defined entity. The text demonstrates IRS from different angles, including the underlying physics, hardware architecture, operating principles, and prototype designs. It enables readers to grasp the knowledge of the interplay of IRS and state-of-the-art technologies, examining the advantages, key principles, challenges, and potential use-cases. Practically, it equips readers with the fundamental knowledge of the operational principles of reconfigurable metasurfaces, resulting in its potential applications in various intelligent, autonomous future wireless communication technologies. To aid in reader comprehension, around 50 figures, tables, illustrations, and photographs to comprehensively present the material are also included. Edited by a team of highly qualified professionals in the field, sample topics covered in Intelligent Reconfigurable Surfaces (IRS) for Prospective 6G Wireless Networks are as follows: Evolution of antenna arrays design, introducing the fundamental principles of antenna theory and reviewing the stages of development of the field Beamforming design for IRS-assisted communications, discussing optimal IRS configuration in conjunction with overviewing novel beamforming designs Reconfigurable metasurfaces from physics to applications, discussing the working principles of tunable/reconfigurable metasurfaces and their capabilities and functionalities IRS hardware architectures, detailing the general hardware architecture of IRS and features related to the IRS’s main operational principle Wireless communication systems assisted by IRS, discussing channel characterization, system integration, and aspects related to the performance analysis and network optimization of state-of-the-art wireless applications. For students and engineers in wireless communications, microwave engineering, and radio hardware and design, Intelligent Reconfigurable Surfaces (IRS) for Prospective 6G Wireless Networks serves as an invaluable resource on the subject and is a useful course accompaniment for general Antenna Theory, Microwave Engineering, Electromagnetics courses.

Book Intelligent Surfaces Empowered 6G Wireless Network

Download or read book Intelligent Surfaces Empowered 6G Wireless Network written by Qingqing Wu and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2023-12-11 with total page 372 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: INTELLIGENT SURFACES EMPOWERED 6G WIRELESS NETWORK Integrate intelligent surfaces into the wireless networks of the future. The next generation of wireless technology (6G) promises to transform wireless communication and human interconnectivity like never before. Intelligent surface, which adopts significant numbers of small reflective surfaces to reconfigure wireless connections and improve network performance, has recently been recognized as a critical component for enabling future 6G. The next phase of wireless technology demands engineers and researchers are familiar with this technology and are able to cope with the challenges. Intelligent Surfaces Empowered 6G Wireless Network provides a thorough overview of intelligent surface technologies and their applications in wireless networks and 6G. It includes an introduction to the fundamentals of intelligent surfaces, before moving to more advanced content for engineers who understand them and look to apply them in the 6G realm. Its detailed discussion of the challenges and opportunities posed by intelligent surfaces empowered wireless networks makes it the first work of its kind. Intelligent Surfaces Empowered 6G Wireless Network readers will also find: An editorial team including the original pioneers of intelligent surface technology. Detailed coverage of subjects including MIMO, terahertz, NOMA, energy harvesting, physical layer security, computing, sensing, machine learning, and more. Discussion of hardware design, signal processing techniques, and other critical aspects of IRS engineering. Intelligent Surfaces Empowered 6G Wireless Network is a must for students, researchers, and working engineers looking to understand this vital aspect of the coming 6G revolution.

Book Intelligent Reflecting Surface For B5G 6G Wireless Networks

Download or read book Intelligent Reflecting Surface For B5G 6G Wireless Networks written by Qingqing Wu and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2023-12-23 with total page 188 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides comprehensive insights into the theory, models, and unique characteristics of intelligent reflecting surface (IRS) and its appealing applications in wireless information and power transmission for B5G/6G. It is organized as follows: Chapter 1 gives an overview of the fundamentals of IRS, including the signal and channel models of IRS, its hardware architecture, advantages and practical constraints. Chapter 2, 3 and 4 focus on how to optimize the joint design of active and passive beamforming for three types of IRS-aided wireless information/energy transmission systems, namely IRS-aided power transfer (WPT), IRS-aided simultaneous wireless information and power transfer (SWIPT) and IRS-aided wireless powered communication networks (WPCN). Chapter 2 specifically presents a general framework design for IRS-aided WPT systems from the perspectives of energy beamforming design and channel estimation, while the dynamic IRS beamforming design is also discussed. Chapter 3 thoroughly studies the IRS-aided SWIPT for achieving better R-E trade-off, wherein two different designs based on weighted sum-power maximization at energy users (EUs) and under individual quality-of-service (QoS), requirements at both information users (IUs) and EUs are investigated. Chapter 4 presents three paradigms of IRS-aided WPCN, i.e., IRS-aided half-duplex (HD) WPCN, IRS-aided full-duplex (FD) WCPN and IRS-aided multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) FD WPCN. The authors present some related emerging topics, e.g., active IRS aided wireless communications and IRS-aided unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) communications in chapter 5. This book targets postgraduate students studying electrical engineering and computer science, and can be used as a secondary textbook. Professionals, researchers and engineers working in wireless networks will also find this book useful as a reference.

Book Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface Empowered 6G

Download or read book Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface Empowered 6G written by Hongliang Zhang and published by Springer. This book was released on 2021-05-30 with total page 251 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents novel RIS-Based Smart Radio techniques, targeting at achieving high-quality channel links in cellular communications via design and optimization of the RIS construction. Unlike traditional antenna arrays, three unique characteristics of the RIS will be revealed in this book. First, the built-in programmable configuration of the RIS enables analog beamforming inherently without extra hardware or signal processing. Second, the incident signals can be controlled to partly reflect and partly transmit through the RIS simultaneously, adding more flexibility to signal transmission. Third, the RIS has no digital processing capability to actively send signals nor any radio frequency (RF) components. As such, it is necessary to develop novel channel estimation and communication protocols, design joint digital and RIS-based analog beamforming schemes and perform interference control via mixed reflection and transmission. This book also investigates how to integrate the RIS to legacy communication systems. RIS techniques are further investigated in this book (benefited from its ability to actively shape the propagation environment) to achieve two types of wireless applications, i.e., RF sensing and localization. The influence of the sensing objectives on the wireless signal propagation can be potentially recognized by the receivers, which are then utilized to identify the objectives in RF sensing. Unlike traditional sensing techniques, RIS-aided sensing can actively customize the wireless channels and generate a favorable massive number of independent paths interacting with the sensing objectives. It is desirable to design RIS-based sensing algorithms, and optimize RIS configurations. For the second application, i.e., RIS aided localization, an RIS is deployed between the access point (AP) and users. The AP can then analyze reflected signals from users via different RIS configurations to obtain accurate locations of users. However, this is a challenging task due to the dynamic user topology, as well as the mutual influence between multiple users and the RIS. Therefore, the operations of the RIS, the AP, and multiple users need to be carefully coordinated. A new RIS-based localization protocol for device cooperation and an RIS configuration optimization algorithm are also required. This book targets researchers and graduate-level students focusing on communications and networks. Signal processing engineers, computer and information scientists, applied mathematicians and statisticians, who work in RIS research and development will also find this book useful.

Book 6G Wireless

Download or read book 6G Wireless written by Faisal Tariq and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2023-06-30 with total page 354 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 6G Wireless: The Communication Paradigm Beyond 2030 offers a thorough discussion of some key emerging technologies such as Intelligent Reflecting Surface (IRS), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), Aerial Computing, Terahertz (THz) Communications, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) and Rate Splitting Multiple Access (RSMA). The book provides a comprehensive coverage of the vision, requirements, use cases, enabling technologies, and challenges for the future 6G wireless communication systems. This includes discussions on how 6G and future IoT systems will enable extremely low latency healthcare systems, smart industry, haptic communications, programmable wireless environment (PWE), advanced VR/AR and holographic communications. IRS is expected to play a prominent role in 6G and the book thoroughly discusses the role of IRS in enabling physical layer security, UAV communications as well as D2D communications. It also explains channel modeling for IRS enabled PWE. Another key aspect of the book is that it provides a comprehensive discussion on security challenges of emerging 6G systems and their potential solutions. Apart from this, it also explains how blockchain techniques can be used for future IoT applications such as intelligent manufacturing and asset tracking. Written in tutorial style, the book is primarily intended for postgraduate students and researchers in the broad domain of wireless communications as well as research-active academics. The book can also be useful as a reference book for BSc/MSc project/thesis works.

Book Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface empowered 6G

Download or read book Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface empowered 6G written by Hongliang Zhang and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents novel RIS-Based Smart Radio techniques, targeting at achieving high-quality channel links in cellular communications via design and optimization of the RIS construction. Unlike traditional antenna arrays, three unique characteristics of the RIS will be revealed in this book. First, the built-in programmable configuration of the RIS enables analog beamforming inherently without extra hardware or signal processing. Second, the incident signals can be controlled to partly reflect and partly transmit through the RIS simultaneously, adding more flexibility to signal transmission. Third, the RIS has no digital processing capability to actively send signals nor any radio frequency (RF) components. As such, it is necessary to develop novel channel estimation and communication protocols, design joint digital and RIS-based analog beamforming schemes and perform interference control via mixed reflection and transmission. This book also investigates how to integrate the RIS to legacy communication systems. RIS techniques are further investigated in this book (benefited from its ability to actively shape the propagation environment) to achieve two types of wireless applications, i.e., RF sensing and localization. The influence of the sensing objectives on the wireless signal propagation can be potentially recognized by the receivers, which are then utilized to identify the objectives in RF sensing. Unlike traditional sensing techniques, RIS-aided sensing can actively customize the wireless channels and generate a favorable massive number of independent paths interacting with the sensing objectives. It is desirable to design RIS-based sensing algorithms, and optimize RIS configurations. For the second application, i.e., RIS aided localization, an RIS is deployed between the access point (AP) and users. The AP can then analyze reflected signals from users via different RIS configurations to obtain accurate locations of users. However, this is a challenging task due to the dynamic user topology, as well as the mutual influence between multiple users and the RIS. Therefore, the operations of the RIS, the AP, and multiple users need to be carefully coordinated. A new RIS-based localization protocol for device cooperation and an RIS configuration optimization algorithm are also required. This book targets researchers and graduate-level students focusing on communications and networks. Signal processing engineers, computer and information scientists, applied mathematicians and statisticians, who work in RIS research and development will also find this book useful.

Book Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface Enabled Integrated Sensing and Communication in 6G

Download or read book Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface Enabled Integrated Sensing and Communication in 6G written by Xiaoling Hu and published by Springer. This book was released on 2024-01-18 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As the main trend and key enabling technology for next-generation wireless networks (i.e., 6G), integrated sensing and communication (ISAC) can effectively improve spectrum efficiency, hardware efficiency, and information processing efficiency. However, it faces several deficiencies, including limited coverage due to high-frequency signals and limited communication-sensing performance due to uncontrollable wireless environments. Reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) provides novel dimensions to address these deficiencies by intelligently manipulating the wireless propagation environment in an energy- and hardware-efficient manner. RIS-enabled ISAC is expected to comprehensively promote the multi-dimensional performance of 6G, such as communication capacity, sensing accuracy, and coverage. Nevertheless, to fully realize its potential, one needs to figure out the impacts of RIS on joint communication and sensing performance and tackle new technical challenges in beamforming design and signal processing. The goal of this book, therefore, is to deliver a thorough understanding of RIS-enabled ISAC from three perspectives: performance analysis, beamforming design, and signal processing. Specifically, the authors provide a brief introduction to RIS-enabled ISAC, including basic concepts, motivations, potential application scenarios, and an overview of the state-of-the-art research on RIS-enabled ISAC. The theoretical performance analytical frameworks of RIS-enabled ISAC and their corresponding results are also discussed. Based on this, several critical issues are identified and elaborated on, including signal processing technologies such as angle and Delay-Doppler information acquisition, and air interface technologies such as beamforming designs. Finally, the book concludes with future trends and open issues for further research. The book would be beneficial for researchers, graduate students, and industry professionals who wish to gain a comprehensive understanding of the latest developments and challenges in RIS-enabled ISAC. By providing insights into the potential of RIS-enabled ISAC and the technical challenges that need to be addressed, the book can aid in the development of practical solutions for next-generation wireless networks and contribute to the advancement of the field of wireless communications.

Book Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces in Wireless Communication Systems

Download or read book Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces in Wireless Communication Systems written by Li, Yueheng and published by KIT Scientific Publishing. This book was released on 2024-02-23 with total page 246 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Accompanied with the development of the wireless communication technologies, the high data traffic is more necessary for civil and industrial applications than ever The concept of an intelligent reflective surface (IRS) has attracted considerable attention recently as a low-cost solution. As the main contribution, the dissertation creates new state-of-the-art and formulates a solid milestone for the IRS research field.

Book Integrated Sensing and Communications for Future Wireless Networks

Download or read book Integrated Sensing and Communications for Future Wireless Networks written by Aryan Kaushik and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2024-12-01 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Integrated Sensing and Communications for Future Wireless Networks: Principles, Advances and Key Enabling Technologies presents the principles, methods, and algorithms of ISAC, an overview of the essential enabling technologies, as well as the latest research and future directions. Suitable for academic researchers and post graduate students as well as industry R&D engineers, this book is the definitive reference in this interdisciplinary field that is being seen as a technology to enable emerging applications such as vehicular networks, environmental monitoring, remote sensing, IoT, smart cities. Importantly, ISAC has been identified as an enabling technology for B5G/6G, and the next-generation Wi-Fi system. ISAC brings together a range of technologies: radar sensing, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces, holographic surfaces through to high frequency terahertz, PHY security, channel signaling, multiple access, and machine learning. Gives an overview of ISAC technology - its potential, the challenges and future research trajectory Presents dual function ISAC waveform design capabilities including frequency hopping, radar chirp and frequency permutations Includes discussions of the following technologies: Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS); Holographic multiple input multiple output (MIMO) Surfaces; Multiple access schemes such as rate splitting multiple access; Machine learning approaches for ISAC; Terahertz (THz) envisioned ISAC and index modulation; Channel estimation, communications, control and localization for ISAC applications

Book Wireless Information and Power Transfer

Download or read book Wireless Information and Power Transfer written by Derrick Wing Kwan Ng and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2019-01-29 with total page 318 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"Wireless Information and Power Transfer offers an authoritative and comprehensive guide to the theory, models, techniques, implementation and application of wireless information and power transfer (WIPT) in energy-constrained wireless communication networks. With contributions from an international panel of experts, this important resource covers the various aspects of WIPT systems such as, system modeling, physical layer techniques, resource allocation and performance analysis. The contributors also explore targeted research problems typically encountered when designing WIPT systems.

Book 6G Frontiers

Download or read book 6G Frontiers written by Chamitha de Alwis and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2022-12-20 with total page 340 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 6G Frontiers Enables readers to understand the exciting new technologies, architectural directions, technical aspects, and applications of 6G, plus legal and standardization approaches 6G Frontiers offers intelligent insight into the ongoing research trends, use cases, and key developmental technologies powering the upcoming 6G framework. The authors cover a myriad of important topics that intersect with 6G, such as hyper-intelligent networking, security, privacy, and trust, harmonized mobile networks, legal views, and standards initiatives. The work also explores the more extreme and controversial predictions surrounding 6G, such as hyper-connected smart cities, space tourism, and deep-sea tourism. Sample thought-provoking topics covered in the comprehensive work include: Evolution of mobile networks, from 0G to 6G, including the driving trends, requirements, and key enabling technologies of each generation Logistics of 6G networks, which are expected to offer peak data rates over 1 Tbps, imperceptible end-to-end delays (beneath 0.1 ms), and network availability and reliability rates beyond 99.99999% New technology requirements for 6G, such as Further enhanced Mobile Broadband (FeMBB), ultra-massive Machine-Type Communication (umMTC), Mobile BroadBand and Low-Latency (MBBLL), and massive Low-Latency Machine Type communication (mLLMT) Potential architectural directions of 6G, including zero-touch network and service management, intent-based networking, edge AI, intelligent network softwarization, and radio access networks A complete and modern resource for understanding the potential development, logistics, and implications of 6G networks, 6G Frontiers is a must-read reference for researchers, academics, and technology architects who wish to understand the cutting-edge progress that is being made towards better and faster wireless mobile technology.

Book

    Book Details:
  • Author :
  • Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
  • Release :
  • ISBN :
  • Pages : 155 pages

Download or read book written by and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on with total page 155 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Book Metasurfaces for Wireless Communications

Download or read book Metasurfaces for Wireless Communications written by Yifei Yuan and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2024-04 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a comprehensive coverage of reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) based wireless communications by covering all the technology stages from working principles, theories and algorithms, system architectures, real-world implementations, and programming platforms through performance measurements and system testing. Metasurfaces for Wireless Communications: Designs and Implementations serves as a must-be read for everything related to the use of RIS in wireless networks. Authored by three experts in the field, the book is organized into five in-depth and well-designed chapters. The first chapter discusses the fundamentals of metasurfaces for wireless communications as well as the related evolution and requirements of RIS in 6G. The second chapter is devoted to the modeling and analyses of RIS for wireless communications by including electromagnetic field modeling and theoretical analyses of both large- and small-scale channel models. In Chapter 3, the authors mainly address properties' characterizations and system design of metasurface devices. Chapter 4 examines relay and system implementations of RIS for wireless communications through basic system models, key design aspects, and system simulations and architectures. Chapter 5 discusses the standardization of RIS-aided wireless communications by providing an overview of the relay technologies, field trials, and roadmaps in 3GPP standardizations. This book serves not only as a comprehensive reference for professional engineers, researchers, manufacturers, network operators, software developers, service providers, and regulatory bodies aiming at the development, standardization, deployment, and applications of B5G and 6G mobile communications, but also as a textbook for graduate students in circuits, signal processing, wireless communications, information theory, microwave technology, and antenna and propagation.

Book Fundamentals of 6G Wireless Communications

Download or read book Fundamentals of 6G Wireless Communications written by Prof D Sachan and published by Independently Published. This book was released on 2022-11-21 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the introduction of Second-Generation Networks (2G), preparations for every upcoming mobile service began many years before the service's official launch. After over ten years of preparation, commercial 5G network deployment started in 2019. In a similar vein, competition has already begun for the 6G wireless networks that will be in use by 2030. 6G will surely need an architectural orchestration based on the fusion of current solutions and cutting-edge technologies to realise its potential in the future 10 years. The first section of the book will assess the current situation of all mobile generations while examining their fundamental components.. This text book "Fundamentals of 6G Wireless Communications" is organized into Six Chapters. Chapter-1: Basics of 6G Mobile Communications Technology Chapter-2: Electromagnetic 6G Spectrum Chapter -3: 6G Wireless Networks Chapter-4: Creating a Network using a Sixth Sense Chapter -5: Architecture of Sixth Generation of Wireless Communications Chapter-6: 6G-based Cyber-Physical world Connectivity The execution of 6G will require essential support from AI and ML at the edge and core of the network, as well as a new Radio Frequency (RF) spectrum. In order to make the future wireless network human-centric and ensure improved quality of experience (QoE) for the majority of its applications, the 6G use cases will necessitate cutting-edge technology. Future wireless communication will also benefit the ideas of Human Bond Communication Beyond 2050 (Knowledge Home) and Communication, Navigation, Sensing, and Services (CONASENSE). To handle Terabits of data speed, terahertz domains will use ultra-Massive Multiple Input Multiple Output Antenna (UM-MIMO) technologies. In order to accommodate both indoor and outdoor high-data rates, optical wireless communications (OWC) will also be used. The new notion of Society will be supported by further expansion of 6G fundamental entities. The 6G ecosystem is likely to include quantum computing processing and communications, with security orchestrated by blockchain for a reliable network. This book is intended for academics and graduate students who are interested in networks and communications. This book will be helpful to applied mathematicians, statisticians, signal processing engineers, computer and information scientists, and others involved in the research and development of RIS. We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all the scientists, engineers, writers, and publishers whose books and articles served as sources of knowledge, inspiration, and direction for us as we presented this small book. I will be grateful for any recommendations from both students and teachers so that we can work to make the textbook more helpful in the upcoming edition.

Book Physical Layer Security

Download or read book Physical Layer Security written by Khoa N. Le and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-01-24 with total page 213 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book studies the vulnerability of wireless communications under line-of-sight (LoS) and non-LoS correlated fading environments. The authors theoretically and practically provide physical layer security analyses for several technologies and networks such as Fifth-Generation (5G) networks, Internet of Things (IoT) applications, and Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA). The authors have provided these under various practical scenarios, and developed theoretical aspects to validate their proposed applications. Presents physical layer security (PLS) under correlated fading environments, 5G wireless networks, and NOMA networks; Provides end-to-end analyses, combination of channel correlation and outdated CSI and their effects on PL; Includes contributions of PLS research written by global experts in academia and industry.

Book Futuristic Communication and Network Technologies

Download or read book Futuristic Communication and Network Technologies written by A. Sivasubramanian and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-10-11 with total page 1024 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents select proceedings of the International Conference on Futuristic Communication and Network Technologies (CFCNT 2020) conducted at Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai. It covers various domains in communication engineering and networking technologies. This volume comprises of recent research in areas like optical communication, optical networks, optics and optical computing, emerging trends in photonics, MEMS and sensors, active and passive RF components and devices, antenna systems and applications, RF devices and antennas for microwave emerging technologies, wireless communication for future networks, signal and image processing, machine learning/AI for networks, internet of intelligent things, network security and blockchain technologies. This book will be useful for researchers, professionals, and engineers working in the core areas of electronics and communication.

Book Surface Electromagnetics

    Book Details:
  • Author : Fan Yang
  • Publisher : Cambridge University Press
  • Release : 2019-06-20
  • ISBN : 1108470262
  • Pages : 489 pages

Download or read book Surface Electromagnetics written by Fan Yang and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2019-06-20 with total page 489 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Provides systematic coverage of the theory, physics, functional designs, and engineering applications of advanced electromagnetic surfaces.