Download or read book Examining the Costs and Benefits of Technology Pathways for Reducing Fuel Use and Emissions from On road Heavy duty Vehicles in California written by Benjamin Rodriguez Sharpe and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In California and many places around the world, exhaust from heavy-duty (HD) diesel vehicles accounts for a major fraction of criteria pollutant emissions such as particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), and HD vehicles are a significant consumer of petroleum-based fuels and a growing contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. California has been a leader in implementing a broad range of policy measures that promote the development and deployment of fuels and technologies to reduce fuel consumption and emissions from HD vehicles. This dissertation formulates an analytical method to investigate the costs and benefits of various technology pathways for HD vehicles that result in drastic reductions in criteria pollutant and GHG emissions.Though there are several studies that estimate the fuel use and emissions contribution of HD vehicles in California and the implications of accelerated advanced technology adoption over time, no studies investigate both the end-user and externality cost impacts of these sweeping technology changes to the HD fleet. This dissertation begins to fill this research gap. Taken together, private and external costs represent an approximation of total societal costs, which is used in a cost-benefit framework to explore the impact of various scenarios for introducing advanced fuel and technologies in the HD vehicle fleet out to 2050. The primary objective of this research is to examine the comparative emissions, fuel use, and total societal costs of six discrete technology adoption scenarios for California HD vehicles between 2010 and 2050.The results indicate that, compared to the Baseline, the five remaining scenarios provide net present value (NPV) savings between roughly 5% and 10% and significant reductions in emissions and fuel use. Total costs are dominated by vehicle retail, fuel, and maintenance expenses, and monetized externalities generally account for less than 5% of total costs. Compared to the Baseline, reduced petroleum-based fuel use makes up roughly 90% or more of the cost savings for each of the non-Baseline scenarios. For the HD fleet, reaching an 80% reduction in GHG emissions versus 1990 levels by 2050 requires that vehicle sales shift almost completely to zero tailpipe emission technologies by 2030, annual fuel consumption reductions in new vehicles are between 2% and 4% per year, and fuel feedstocks transition to low-carbon pathways. Results from this research suggest that if California is to dramatically transform the HD vehicle fleet over such a short timeframe, a combination of strong incentive programs and technology-forcing regulations are required.
Download or read book Cost Effectiveness and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light Duty Vehicles written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2015-09-28 with total page 812 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The light-duty vehicle fleet is expected to undergo substantial technological changes over the next several decades. New powertrain designs, alternative fuels, advanced materials and significant changes to the vehicle body are being driven by increasingly stringent fuel economy and greenhouse gas emission standards. By the end of the next decade, cars and light-duty trucks will be more fuel efficient, weigh less, emit less air pollutants, have more safety features, and will be more expensive to purchase relative to current vehicles. Though the gasoline-powered spark ignition engine will continue to be the dominant powertrain configuration even through 2030, such vehicles will be equipped with advanced technologies, materials, electronics and controls, and aerodynamics. And by 2030, the deployment of alternative methods to propel and fuel vehicles and alternative modes of transportation, including autonomous vehicles, will be well underway. What are these new technologies - how will they work, and will some technologies be more effective than others? Written to inform The United States Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission standards, this new report from the National Research Council is a technical evaluation of costs, benefits, and implementation issues of fuel reduction technologies for next-generation light-duty vehicles. Cost, Effectiveness, and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light-Duty Vehicles estimates the cost, potential efficiency improvements, and barriers to commercial deployment of technologies that might be employed from 2020 to 2030. This report describes these promising technologies and makes recommendations for their inclusion on the list of technologies applicable for the 2017-2025 CAFE standards.
Download or read book Driving Emissions to Zero written by Lloyd S. Dixon and published by Rand Corporation. This book was released on 2002 with total page 139 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: California's Zero Emission Vehicle ÝZEV¨ program requires that starting in 2003, a portion of the new vehicles delivered for sale in the state must produce no emissions. This study examines the costs and emission benefits of battery powered electric vehicles, direct hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles, and other advanced technology vehicles, such as gasoline hybrid electric vehicles, that manufacturers may use to satisfy program requirements. The authors find that the cost of battery-powered electric vehicles per ton of emissions reduced is very high and not likely to fall to reasonable levels any time soon, and that it is too early to tell whether direct hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, which show much promise, are an economical way to improve California's air quality. The study also evaluates California's goal of reducing the emissions of the state's light duty vehicle fleet to zero. It finds that federal air quality standards can be met without a zero emission fleet and that lower cost alternatives for improving air quality appear available. The authors conclude that instead of requiring manufacturers to meet emission reduction targets with particular vehicle technologies, California should eliminate the requirement for zero emission vehicles, tighten emission standards on light-duty vehicles, and focus on setting emission performance standards.
Download or read book Reducing Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Medium and Heavy Duty Vehicles Phase Two written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2020-05-15 with total page 399 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Medium- and heavy-duty trucks, motor coaches, and transit buses - collectively, "medium- and heavy-duty vehicles", or MHDVs - are used in every sector of the economy. The fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of MHDVs have become a focus of legislative and regulatory action in the past few years. This study is a follow-on to the National Research Council's 2010 report, Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium-and Heavy-Duty Vehicles. That report provided a series of findings and recommendations on the development of regulations for reducing fuel consumption of MHDVs. On September 15, 2011, NHTSA and EPA finalized joint Phase I rules to establish a comprehensive Heavy-Duty National Program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fuel consumption for on-road medium- and heavy-duty vehicles. As NHTSA and EPA began working on a second round of standards, the National Academies issued another report, Reducing the Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Phase Two: First Report, providing recommendations for the Phase II standards. This third and final report focuses on a possible third phase of regulations to be promulgated by these agencies in the next decade.
Download or read book Assessment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light Duty Vehicles written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2011-06-03 with total page 373 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Various combinations of commercially available technologies could greatly reduce fuel consumption in passenger cars, sport-utility vehicles, minivans, and other light-duty vehicles without compromising vehicle performance or safety. Assessment of Technologies for Improving Light Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy estimates the potential fuel savings and costs to consumers of available technology combinations for three types of engines: spark-ignition gasoline, compression-ignition diesel, and hybrid. According to its estimates, adopting the full combination of improved technologies in medium and large cars and pickup trucks with spark-ignition engines could reduce fuel consumption by 29 percent at an additional cost of $2,200 to the consumer. Replacing spark-ignition engines with diesel engines and components would yield fuel savings of about 37 percent at an added cost of approximately $5,900 per vehicle, and replacing spark-ignition engines with hybrid engines and components would reduce fuel consumption by 43 percent at an increase of $6,000 per vehicle. The book focuses on fuel consumption-the amount of fuel consumed in a given driving distance-because energy savings are directly related to the amount of fuel used. In contrast, fuel economy measures how far a vehicle will travel with a gallon of fuel. Because fuel consumption data indicate money saved on fuel purchases and reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, the book finds that vehicle stickers should provide consumers with fuel consumption data in addition to fuel economy information.
Download or read book Transitions to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2013-04-14 with total page 395 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For a century, almost all light-duty vehicles (LDVs) have been powered by internal combustion engines operating on petroleum fuels. Energy security concerns about petroleum imports and the effect of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on global climate are driving interest in alternatives. Transitions to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels assesses the potential for reducing petroleum consumption and GHG emissions by 80 percent across the U.S. LDV fleet by 2050, relative to 2005. This report examines the current capability and estimated future performance and costs for each vehicle type and non-petroleum-based fuel technology as options that could significantly contribute to these goals. By analyzing scenarios that combine various fuel and vehicle pathways, the report also identifies barriers to implementation of these technologies and suggests policies to achieve the desired reductions. Several scenarios are promising, but strong, and effective policies such as research and development, subsidies, energy taxes, or regulations will be necessary to overcome barriers, such as cost and consumer choice.
Download or read book Driving Emissions to Zero Are the Benefits of California s Zero Emission Vehicle Program Worth the Costs written by and published by . This book was released on 2002 with total page 155 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program is a controversial part of California's strategy for meeting federal air quality standards. The program has been significantly modified multiple times since it was adopted by the California Air Resources Board in 1990 and is currently being challenged in court. This report is an independent assessment of the costs and emission benefits of ZEVs and the other low-emission vehicles that manufacturers are allowed to use to meet ZEV program requirements. It reviews the program in the context of the overall strategy for reducing emissions in the greater Los Angeles area and makes recommendations for reform. The analysis and results presented should be of interest to government agencies, environmental groups, and automakers involved in developing policies to improve air quality in California. California has made significant progress in improving air quality in many parts of the state. However, substantial reductions in emissions of non-methane organic gases (NMO(3) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are still needed to meet federal standards in California's South Coast Air Basin by 2010, as required by the Clean Air Act. The South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) and the California Air Resources Board (CARB) have adopted an aggressive strategy to reduce emissions. A controversial part of this strategy is the state's Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program, which requires that auto manufacturers begin selling ZEVs starting in 2003. The ZEV program is a first step in achieving CARB.
Download or read book Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium and Heavy Duty Vehicles written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2010-07-30 with total page 251 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles evaluates various technologies and methods that could improve the fuel economy of medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, such as tractor-trailers, transit buses, and work trucks. The book also recommends approaches that federal agencies could use to regulate these vehicles' fuel consumption. Currently there are no fuel consumption standards for such vehicles, which account for about 26 percent of the transportation fuel used in the U.S. The miles-per-gallon measure used to regulate the fuel economy of passenger cars. is not appropriate for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, which are designed above all to carry loads efficiently. Instead, any regulation of medium- and heavy-duty vehicles should use a metric that reflects the efficiency with which a vehicle moves goods or passengers, such as gallons per ton-mile, a unit that reflects the amount of fuel a vehicle would use to carry a ton of goods one mile. This is called load-specific fuel consumption (LSFC). The book estimates the improvements that various technologies could achieve over the next decade in seven vehicle types. For example, using advanced diesel engines in tractor-trailers could lower their fuel consumption by up to 20 percent by 2020, and improved aerodynamics could yield an 11 percent reduction. Hybrid powertrains could lower the fuel consumption of vehicles that stop frequently, such as garbage trucks and transit buses, by as much 35 percent in the same time frame.
Download or read book Hidden Costs of Energy written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2010-05-26 with total page 506 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite the many benefits of energy, most of which are reflected in energy market prices, the production, distribution, and use of energy causes negative effects. Many of these negative effects are not reflected in energy market prices. When market failures like this occur, there may be a case for government interventions in the form of regulations, taxes, fees, tradable permits, or other instruments that will motivate recognition of these external or hidden costs. The Hidden Costs of Energy defines and evaluates key external costs and benefits that are associated with the production, distribution, and use of energy, but are not reflected in market prices. The damage estimates presented are substantial and reflect damages from air pollution associated with electricity generation, motor vehicle transportation, and heat generation. The book also considers other effects not quantified in dollar amounts, such as damages from climate change, effects of some air pollutants such as mercury, and risks to national security. While not a comprehensive guide to policy, this analysis indicates that major initiatives to further reduce other emissions, improve energy efficiency, or shift to a cleaner electricity generating mix could substantially reduce the damages of external effects. A first step in minimizing the adverse consequences of new energy technologies is to better understand these external effects and damages. The Hidden Costs of Energy will therefore be a vital informational tool for government policy makers, scientists, and economists in even the earliest stages of research and development on energy technologies.
Download or read book Renewable Transportation Fuel for California s Electric drive Vehicles written by Alexander Allan and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: California has enacted a number of policies that incentivize the use of advanced vehicle technologies and fuels to help reduce petroleum usage, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. These include the Pavley greenhouse gas emissions standards, the Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS), the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) and Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV) regulations and initiatives that support adoption of alternative fuels, such as the Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP) and Alternative Fuel Incentive Program (AFIP). In addition, the state has set an economy-wide goal of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 80% below 1990 levels by 2050. Greatly reducing GHG emissions from the transportation sector will likely require large-scale adoption of electric-drive - plug-in hybrid electric, battery-electric, or hydrogen fuel cell vehicles - powered by renewable, low carbon electricity or hydrogen. Under the Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) the contribution of renewable sources to California's electricity generation mix will increase from 20 percent in 2010 to 33 percent in 2020. Likewise, SB1505 requires hydrogen transportation fuel in California to achieve a 30% reduction in GHG emissions per mile and include a 33% renewable component. The mutual policy goals of decarbonized transportation fuels and electricity generation will lead to a "convergence" of these two previously disparate energy sectors. Any effort to assess California's ability to achieve deep GHG emissions cuts from transportation will therefore require an integrated approach that considers such a convergence, understanding how best to share energy supply resources among both sectors and meet the combined demand for low-carbon, renewable energy they represent. In previous studies, Ryan McCarthy developed an hourly model of California's future electricity grid (LEDGE-CA) to investigate GHG emissions and cost impacts attributable to interactions between growing populations of electric-drive vehicles and the evolution of the electricity supply in California. This thesis aims to extend McCarthy's work in two key areas: quantifying renewable resources available for electricity and hydrogen fuel production in California and investigating the potential role of energy storage. Using geospatial and temporal analysis of planned and potential renewable electricity generation projects, this study develops a detailed assessment of the hourly renewable electricity supply in California that serves as an input into LEDGE-CA. Wind and solar energy are abundant renewable resources in California, yet their intermittency make them challenging to integrate into the electricity grid. Grid-energy storage options are evaluated to investigate how best to utilize wind and solar energy resources to meet electricity and hydrogen fuel demand. This study assesses the total potential for using renewable resources to produce fuel for electric and hydrogen vehicles in California and identifies potential strategy differences in terms of where and when to produce electricity and hydrogen fuels. Alternative pathways are compared with respect to cost, GHG emissions, energy demand, and transition issues.
Download or read book Reducing the Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Medium And Heavy Duty Vehicles Phase Two written by Committee on Assessment of Technologies and Approaches for Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium- And Heavy-Duty Vehicles Phase Two and published by . This book was released on 2014-10-02 with total page 116 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Medium- and heavy-duty trucks, motor coaches, and transit buses - collectively, "medium- and heavy-duty vehicles," or MHDVs - are used in every sector of the economy. The fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of MHDVs have become a focus of legislative and regulatory action in the past few years. "Reducing the Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Phase Two" is a follow-on to the National Research Council's 2010 report, "Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium-and Heavy-Duty Vehicles." That report provided a series of findings and recommendations on the development of regulations for reducing fuel consumption of MHDVs. This report comprises the first periodic, five-year follow-on to the 2010 report. "Reducing the Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Phase Two" reviews NHTSA fuel consumption regulations and considers the technological, market and regulatory factors that may be of relevance to a revised and updated regulatory regime taking effect for model years 2019-2022. The report analyzes and provides options for improvements to the certification and compliance procedures for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles; reviews an updated analysis of the makeup and characterization of the medium- and heavy-duty truck fleet; examines the barriers to and the potential applications of natural gas in class 2b through class 8 vehicles; and addresses uncertainties and performs sensitivity analyses for the fuel consumption and cost/benefit estimates.
Download or read book Review of the U S Department of Energy s Heavy Vehicle Technologies Program written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2000-12-01 with total page 56 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As national priorities have been focused both on reducing fuel consumption and improving air quality, attention has increased on reducing emissions from many types of vehicles, including light-duty, medium-duty, and heavy-duty diesel-powered vehicles. Meeting the recently promulgated (and proposed) emission standards and simultaneously increasing fuel economy will pose especially difficult challenges for diesel-powered vehicles and will require the development of new emission-reduction technologies. In response to a request from the director of OHVT, the National Research Council formed the Committee on Review of DOE's Office of Heavy Vehicle Technologies to conduct a broad, independent review of its research and development (R&D) activities.
Download or read book Exergetic Energetic and Environmental Dimensions written by Ibrahim Dincer and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2017-10-06 with total page 1136 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This edited book looks at recent studies on interdisciplinary research related to exergy, energy, and the environment. This topic is of prime significance – there is a strong need for practical solutions through better design, analysis and assessment in order to achieve better efficiency, environment and sustainability. Exergetic, Energetic and Environmental Dimensions covers a number of topics ranging from thermodynamic optimization of energy systems, to the environmental impact assessment and clean energy, offering readers a comprehensive reference on analysis, modeling, development, experimental investigation, and improvement of many micro to macro systems and applications, ranging from basic to advanced categories. Its comprehensive content includes: Comprehensive coverage of development of systems considering exergy, energy, and environmental issues, along with the most up-to-date information in the area, plus recent developments New developments in the area of exergy, including recent debate involving the shaping of future directions and priorities for better environment, sustainable development and energy security Provides a number of illustrative examples, practical applications, and case studies Introduces recently developed technological and strategic solutions and engineering applications for professionals in the area Provides numerous engineering examples and applications on exergy Offers a variety of problems that foster critical thinking and skill development
Download or read book Understanding the Role of Transportation in Meeting California s Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Target written by Saleh Zakerinia and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The CA-TIMES is an energy economic optimization model that is being developed at UC Davis to study how California can meet its stringent GHG emissions target in 2050. The focus of the CA-TIMES is on identifying optimal and feasible pathways that can potentially be used to achieve the GHG reduction target by 2050. The overarching goal of this dissertation is to learn about the future options and policies for a low carbon energy system and transportation sector. It consists of three chapters build upon and extend the CA-TIMES framework, and address three key issues in energy/economic modeling. Cost-effectiveness is an imperative performance measure in the policy world to evaluate any potential technology/policy measures considered for adoption to meet the long-term reduction target. Currently, insufficient attention has been paid to individual technology options or policy measures and their relative cost-effectiveness in the results of CA-TIMES, e.g. how cost-effective are electric vehicles under different scenarios/policies. In the first chapter, I address the shortcomings of conventional cost-effectiveness curves, which are widely used in the policy world. The obtained curves in this chapter show cost-effectiveness of various technology and policy options considering system-wide behavioral, technological, and intertemporal interactions. The underlying assumption of a technology-forcing policy, where a regulator specifies a standard that cannot be met with the existing technology without switching to more expensive options, is that technology costs will eventually come down with more investments in R&D and/or deployment of technologies due to so-called “learning by doing”. The current version of the CA-TIMES model does not consider endogenous technological learning and the effects of technology-forcing policies on technological learning. In this chapter, I will incorporate endogenous learning into the CA-TIMES model where future values of technology costs are no longer a function of time alone, but they depend on the cumulative investment decisions taken by the model. The results show the ZEV mandate play a critical role in promoting zero-emissions vehicles in the absence of carbon cap as well as in the medium-term. However, carbon cap is a single important policy in promoting zero-emissions vehicles in the long-term. In the third chapter, I expand the existing California TIMES (CA-TIMES) model and include the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) electricity region into this model, I explore the impact of California's policies on the Western Electricity Coordinating Council grid. My analysis shows that a climate target on California only and not on the other states could contribute to the greening of power plants in the Western States, driven by the possibility to export electricity to California. When a carbon target is extended to the grid of all Western States, as well as the entire energy system of California, there cannot be zero emissions without adopting carbon capture and storage. Together this dissertation presents novel methodological improvements to the CA-TIMES energy/economic framework, enabling a more nuanced view of California's transition to a low Carbon transportation energy system, under different policy and technology assumptions.
Download or read book Decarbonizing Medium Heavy duty On road Vehicles written by Catherine Ledna and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Download or read book Cradle to Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U S Light Duty Vehicle Fuel Pathways written by and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This study provides a comprehensive lifecycle analysis (LCA), or cradle-to-grave (C2G) analysis, of the cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of a variety of vehicle-fuel pathways, as well as the levelized cost of driving (LCD) and cost of avoided GHG emissions. This study also estimates the technology readiness levels (TRLs) of key fuel and vehicle technologies along the pathways. The C2G analysis spans a full portfolio of midsize light-duty vehicles (LDVs), including conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). In evaluating the vehicle-fuel combinations, this study considers both low-volume and high-volume "CURRENT TECHNOLOGY" cases (nominally 2015) and a high-volume "FUTURE TECHNOLOGY" lower-carbon case (nominally 2025-2030). For the CURRENT TECHNOLOGY case, low-volume vehicle and fuel production pathways are examined to determine costs in the near term.
Download or read book Cradle to Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U S Light Duty Vehicle Fuel Pathways written by and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page 210 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This study provides a comprehensive lifecycle analysis (LCA), or cradle-to-grave (C2G) analysis, of the cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of a variety of vehicle-fuel pathways, as well as the levelized cost of driving (LCD) and cost of avoided GHG emissions. This study also estimates the technology readiness levels (TRLs) of key fuel and vehicle technologies along the pathways. The C2G analysis spans a full portfolio of midsize light-duty vehicles (LDVs), including conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). In evaluating the vehicle-fuel combinations, this study considers both low-volume and high-volume "CURRENT TECHNOLOGY" cases (nominally 2015) and a high-volume "FUTURE TECHNOLOGY" lower-carbon case (nominally 2025-2030). For the CURRENT TECHNOLOGY case, low-volume vehicle and fuel production pathways are examined to determine costs in the near term.
