Download or read book A Multistage Parallel path Power Amplifier in Silicon Germanide Bipolar Technology for Mm wave Wireless Applications written by Tak Shun Dickson Cheung and published by . This book was released on 2007 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Wireless transmitters at mm-wave frequencies usually require costly III-V GaAs power amplifiers that must be packaged separately from mainstream silicon CMOS and BiCMOS circuits. This thesis studies the prospect of an integrable 3-stage power amplifier in a 100GHzfMAX 0.2microm SiGe HBT technology to facilitate cost-effective implementations of single-chip transceivers for 21--26GHz wireless applications. The amplifier utilizes an all common-base differential topology to maximize the power gain and extend the VCC supply to BVCEO of the transistors (1.8V). New on-chip components, such as interconnects with floating differential shields, self-shielding transformers and 4-way power combining/dividing baluns provide inter-stage coupling and single-ended interfaces at the input and output. On-chip ground isolation, low-inductance base interconnects and base ballast resistors are employed to ensure electrical and thermal stability. The current ratings of the on-chip passive components are designed to withstand the expected DC currents up to 110°C. The 2.45x2.45mm2 MMIC was mounted as a flip-chip and tested without a heatsink. It delivers 23dBm, 19.75% PAE at 22GHz, and 2ldBm, 13% PAE at 24GHz. The power gain is 19dB at a small-signal level and over 15dB at the maximum output power.

Download or read book A Multistage Parrallel path Power Amplifier in SiGe Bipolar Tecnology for Mm wave Wireless Applications written by Tak S. D. Cheung and published by . This book was released on 2007 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Dissertation Abstracts International written by and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 800 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Download or read book Silicon Germanium Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors for mm Wave Systems Technology Modeling and Circuit Applications written by Niccolò Rinaldi and published by River Publishers. This book was released on 2018-03-15 with total page 378 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The semiconductor industry is a fundamental building block of the new economy, there is no area of modern life untouched by the progress of nanoelectronics. The electronic chip is becoming an ever-increasing portion of system solutions, starting initially from less than 5% in the 1970 microcomputer era, to more than 60% of the final cost of a mobile telephone, 50% of the price of a personal computer (representing nearly 100% of the functionalities) and 30% of the price of a monitor in the early 2000's. Interest in utilizing the (sub-)mm-wave frequency spectrum for commercial and research applications has also been steadily increasing. Such applications, which constitute a diverse but sizeable future market, span a large variety of areas such as health, material science, mass transit, industrial automation, communications, and space exploration. Silicon-Germanium Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors for mm-Wave Systems Technology, Modeling and Circuit Applications provides an overview of results of the DOTSEVEN EU research project, and as such focusses on key material developments for mm-Wave Device Technology. It starts with the motivation at the beginning of the project and a summary of its major achievements. The subsequent chapters provide a detailed description of the obtained research results in the various areas of process development, device simulation, compact device modeling, experimental characterization, reliability, (sub-)mm-wave circuit design and systems.

Download or read book Millimeter Wave Power Amplifiers written by Jaco du Preez and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-10-05 with total page 367 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a detailed review of millimeter-wave power amplifiers, discussing design issues and performance limitations commonly encountered in light of the latest research. Power amplifiers, which are able to provide high levels of output power and linearity while being easily integrated with surrounding circuitry, are a crucial component in wireless microwave systems. The book is divided into three parts, the first of which introduces readers to mm-wave wireless systems and power amplifiers. In turn, the second focuses on design principles and EDA concepts, while the third discusses future trends in power amplifier research. The book provides essential information on mm-wave power amplifier theory, as well as the implementation options and technologies involved in their effective design, equipping researchers, circuit designers and practicing engineers to design, model, analyze, test and implement high-performance, spectrally clean and energy-efficient mm-wave systems.

Download or read book RF and mm Wave Power Generation in Silicon written by Hua Wang and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2015-12-10 with total page 578 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon presents the challenges and solutions of designing power amplifiers at RF and mm-Wave frequencies in a silicon-based process technology. It covers practical power amplifier design methodologies, energy- and spectrum-efficient power amplifier design examples in the RF frequency for cellular and wireless connectivity applications, and power amplifier and power generation designs for enabling new communication and sensing applications in the mm-Wave and THz frequencies. With this book you will learn: Power amplifier design fundamentals and methodologies Latest advances in silicon-based RF power amplifier architectures and designs and their integration in wireless communication systems State-of-the-art mm-Wave/THz power amplifier and power generation circuits and systems in silicon Extensive coverage from fundamentals to advanced design topics, focusing on various layers of abstraction: from device modeling and circuit design strategy to advanced digital and mixed-signal architectures for highly efficient and linear power amplifiers New architectures for power amplifiers in the cellar and wireless connectivity covering detailed design methodologies and state-of-the-art performances Detailed design techniques, trade-off analysis and design examples for efficiency enhancement at power back-off and linear amplification for spectrally-efficient non-constant envelope modulations Extensive coverage of mm-Wave power-generation techniques from the early days of the 60 GHz research to current state-of the-art reconfigurable, digital mm-Wave PA architectures Detailed analysis of power generation challenges in the higher mm-Wave and THz frequencies and novel technical solutions for a wide range for potential applications, including ultrafast wireless communication to sensing, imaging and spectroscopy Contributions from the world-class experts from both academia and industry

Download or read book Design of Silicon Power Ampliers and Arrays for Millimeter Wave Applications written by Bassel Hanafi and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 115 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With emerging millimeter wave applications including automotive radars, wireless transmission of high-definition content, and possibly 5G mobile communications, low cost and high performance power amplifiers are key for enabling a commercial mass market. Silicon technologies offer cost advantages but typically suffer from low breakdown voltage and low Q passive elements yielding low power density and low efficiency. This thesis presents millimeter wave power amplifiers implemented in main stream silicon technologies. The task of obtaining large output power from low breakdown silicon devices is addressed by the use of stacking and power combining techniques. The design of a Q-band amplifier implemented in IBM 0.13um SiGe HBT process featuring on-chip corporate combining is first described. Stacking of bipolar transistors is introduced, together with novel low impedance biasing circuits to enable high breakdown voltage while extending the output swings. The fabricated amplifier delivered 24.7 dBm of maximum output power at 39 GHz, and 6.5% efficiency at 5.2 V without degradation. Alternatively, free-space combining can eliminate lossy on-chip combiners allowing for higher power and efficiency. A chip of 8 unit amplifiers implemented in 45nm CMOS SOI feeding a 2x2 array of differentially-fed patch antennas is demonstrated. With this chip, using CMOS stacking techniques, high output power (28 dBm) was achieved from a 3-stage amplifier operating at 45 GHz. When coupled to the antennas, the array provided an equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of 40 dBm (10 W), and a larger system comprising 4 chips feeding a 2x8 array was shown to deliver an EIRP of 50 dBm (100 W) at 45 GHz, while demonstrating, for the first time, a total RF power of 33 dBm which is a record in silicon at this frequency. The estimated peak PAE for both arrays are 13.5% and 10.7%, respectively. Finally, power amplifiers implemented in SOI technology can suffer from severe self-heating. The thermal behavior of CMOS SOI PAs is evaluated using 3D thermal simulations, and the effects of the back-end interconnect as well as the layout on the overall thermal resistance are discussed. The models were verified against measurements for an individual FET using the output conductance method. For a stacked-FET PA fabricated in 45nm CMOS SOI, the models reveal an excessive temperature rise of 150C for the FETs at maximum power, hence simple ideas were proposed to improve the thermal resistance of SOI circuits, with limited impact on electrical performance.

Download or read book Reconfigurable RF Power Amplifiers on Silicon for Wireless Handsets written by Laurent Leyssenne and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2011-01-11 with total page 180 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Reconfigurable RF Power Amplifiers on Silicon for Wireless Handsets is intended to designers and researchers who have to tackle the efficiency/linearity trade-off in modern RF transmitters so as to extend their battery lifetime. High data rate 3G/4G standards feature broad channel bandwidths, high dynamic range and critical envelope variations which generally forces the power amplifier (PA) to operate in a low efficiency “backed-off” regime. Classic efficiency enhancement techniques such as Envelope Elimination and Restoration reveal to be little compliant with handset-dedicated PA implementation due to their channel-bandwidth-limited behavior and their increased die area consumption and/or bill-of-material. The architectural advances that are proposed in this book circumvent these issues since they put the stress on low die-area /low power-consumption control circuitry. The advantages of silicon over III/V technologies are highlighted by several analogue signal processing techniques that can be implemented on-chip with a power amplifier. System-level and transistor-level simulations are combined to illustrate the principles of the proposed power adaptive solutions. Measurement on BICMOS demonstrators allows validating the functionality of dynamic linearity/efficiency management. In Reconfigurable RF Power Amplifiers on Silicon for Wireless Handsets, PA designers will find a review of technologies, architectures and theoretical formalisms (Volterra series...) that are traditionally related to PA design. Specific issues that one encounters in power amplifiers (such as thermal / memory effects, stability, VSWR sensitivity...) and the way of overcoming them are also extensively considered throughout this book.

Download or read book High Efficiency Power Amplifier Design for 28 GHz 5G Transmitters written by Nourhan Elsayed and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-02-02 with total page 105 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book introduces power amplifier design in 22nm FDSOI CMOS dedicated towards 5G applications at 28 GHz and presents 4 state-of-the-art power amplifier designs. The authors discuss power amplifier performance metrics, design trade-offs, and presents different power amplifier classes utilizing efficiency enhancement techniques at 28 GHz. The book presents the design process from theory, simulation, layout, and finally measurement results.

Download or read book mm Wave Silicon Power Amplifiers and Transmitters written by Hossein Hashemi and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2016-04-04 with total page 471 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Build high-performance, spectrally clean, energy-efficient mm-wave power amplifiers and transmitters with this cutting-edge guide to designing, modeling, analysing, implementing and testing new mm-wave systems. Suitable for students, researchers and practicing engineers, this self-contained guide provides in-depth coverage of state-of-the-art semiconductor devices and technologies, linear and nonlinear power amplifier technologies, efficient power combining systems, circuit concepts, system architectures and system-on-a-chip realizations. The world's foremost experts from industry and academia cover all aspects of the design process, from device technologies to system architectures. Accompanied by numerous case studies highlighting practical design techniques, tradeoffs and pitfalls, this is a superb resource for those working with high-frequency systems.

Download or read book High Efficiency Load Modulation Power Amplifiers for Wireless Communications written by Zhancang Wang and published by Artech House. This book was released on 2017-06-30 with total page 389 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This cutting-edge resource presents a complete and systematic overview of the practical design considerations of radio frequency (RF) high efficiency load modulation power amplifiers (PA) for modern wireless communications for 4G and beyond. It provides comprehensive insight into all aspects of load modulation PA design and optimization not only covering design approaches specifically for passive and active load modulation operation but also hybrid with dynamic supply modulation and digital signal processing algorithms required for performance enhancement. Passive load impedance tuner design, dynamic load modulation PA, active load modulation PA and Doherty PA design for efficiently enhancement are explained. Readers find practical guidance into load modulation PA design for bandwidth extension, including video bandwidth enhancement techniques, broadband dynamic load amplifiers, topology selection, design procedures, and network output. This book presents the evolution and integration of classical load modulation PA topologies in order to meet new challenges in the field.

Download or read book Power Combining Techniques for Millimeter wave Silicon Power Amplifiers written by Jefy Alex Jayamon and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 152 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Emerging millimeter-wave applications, including high speed wireless communication using 5G standards, favor silicon technologies, both CMOS and SiGe, for transceiver design, due to the high level of integration at reduced cost and availability of high speed transistors. Efficient, linear and reliable high power amplifiers with broad bandwidth are needed at the transmitter front-ends to enable high data rate links at long distances. But the low breakdown voltage of CMOS FETs due to gate length scaling and other transistor non-idealities make the design of high power mm-wave amplifiers in deeply scaled CMOS nodes difficult. Circuit techniques like FET stacking provide a compact and efficient way of implementing high power mm-wave amplifiers reliably. Other power combining techniques such as on-chip and spatial power combining can be used along with FET stacking to achieve even higher output power levels. This thesis investigates the design of high power mm-wave power amplifiers at frequencies from 28 GHz to 94 GHz, using multiple power combining techniques. This work extends the use of FET stacking for high power PA design to 94 GHz. A 3-stack PA designed in 45 nm CMOS SOI with 17 dBm output power and 9% efficiency is presented. Using this PA as front-end, a CMOS PA-antenna array is designed, to additionally provide spatial power combining. The CMOS chip has a 2 x 4 array of pseudo-differential power amplifiers along with the signal distribution networks and pre-drivers. A quartz wafer with a 2 x 4 array of differential microstrip antennas deposited on it is placed on top of the CMOS chip, electromagnetically coupled to the PA outputs on the CMOS chip. The spatially power combined PA-antenna array achieved a measured equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of 33 dBm and an estimated output power of 24 dBm at 94 GHz. Modulated data measurements at 3 Gbps (375 MS/s, 256 QAM) speed using digital pre-distortion are demonstrated with the PA-antenna array. A novel layout style is introduced for stacked FET design at low mm-wave frequencies. A small multi-finger FET is laid out with fingers connected in series to create the stacked FET. The gate capacitors are realized around the FET with the back-end-of-line metal available in the CMOS process. Multiple multigate cells are interconnected to implement the stacked FET PA. A PA designed in this style in 45 nm CMOS SOI process achieved 24.8 dBm of output power and 29% PAE at 28 GHz with high reliability. This PA is very broadband and linear as shown by the modulated data measurements achieving a data rate of 36 Gbps (6 GS/s, 64 QAM) at 14 dBm with 9.3% PAE, with no digital predistortion. NFETs and PFETs available in nano-scale CMOS processes are compared and it is shown that in deeply scaled processes, PMOS devices are a viable alternative to NFETs due to their cut-off frequencies similar to those of NFETs, and higher breakdown voltages than NFETs. The first exclusively PMOS mm-wave PA design is reported. This 3-stack PA, made in 32 nm CMOS SOI process, achieved a maximum output power of 19.6 dBm and maximum efficiency of 24% at 78 GHz. All the designs reported in this thesis achieved either the highest output power or the highest PAE for a CMOS PA at their respective frequencies.

Download or read book Integrated Sub Millimeter Wave High Power Amplifiers in Advanced InGaAs Channel HEMT Technology written by Laurenz John and published by Fraunhofer Verlag. This book was released on 2021-12-09 with total page 160 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Driven by the large absolute bandwidths that are available at the sub-mm-wave frequency range around 300 GHz, wireless high-data-rate communication systems and high-resolution imaging applications are being extensively investigated in recent years. Due to their superior characteristics in terms of noise figure and cutoff frequencies, InGaAs-channel HEMT devices have proven to be a key technology to implement the required active front-end MMICs for these wireless THz systems, enabling ultra-high bandwidths and state-of-the-art noise performance. This work describes the modeling, design, and characterization of 300-GHz HEMT-based power amplifier cells and demonstrates the implementation of highly compact amplifier MMICs and broadband waveguide modules. These amplifiers are key components for the implementation of high-performance chipsets for wireless THz systems, providing high output power for the utilization of next-generation communication and imaging applications. A unique amplifier topology based on multi-finger cascode and common-source devices is developed and evaluated, demonstrating more than 20-mW measured output power at the sub-mm-wave frequency range around 300 GHz.

Download or read book CMOS 60 GHz and E band Power Amplifiers and Transmitters written by Dixian Zhao and published by Springer. This book was released on 2015-07-09 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book focuses on the development of design techniques and methodologies for 60-GHz and E-band power amplifiers and transmitters at device, circuit and layout levels. The authors show the recent development of millimeter-wave design techniques, especially of power amplifiers and transmitters, and presents novel design concepts, such as “power transistor layout” and “4-way parallel-series power combiner”, that can enhance the output power and efficiency of power amplifiers in a compact silicon area. Five state-of-the-art 60-GHz and E-band designs with measured results are demonstrated to prove the effectiveness of the design concepts and hands-on methodologies presented. This book serves as a valuable reference for circuit designers to develop millimeter-wave building blocks for future 5G applications.

Download or read book High Power Millimeter Wave Signal Generation in Advanced SiGe and CMOS Process written by Hsin-Chang Lin and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 132 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This thesis first presents a fully-integrated 16-way power combining amplifier for 67-92 GHz applications in an advanced 90 nm silicon germanium (SiGe) HBT technology. The 16-way amplifier is implemented using 3-stage common-emitter single-ended power amplifiers (PAs) as building blocks, and reactive l/4 impedance transformation networks are used for power combining. The 3-stage single PA breakout has a small-signal gain of 22 dB at 74 GHz, and saturation output power (Psat ) of 14.3-16.4 dBm at 68-99 GHz. The power-combining PA achieves a small-signal gain of 19.3 dB at 74 GHz, and Psat of 25.3-27.3 dBm at 68-88 GHz with a maximum power added efficiency (PAE) of 12.4%. The 16-way amplifier occupies 6.48 mm2 (including pads) and consumes a maximum current of 2.1 A from a 1.8 V supply. To our knowledge, this is the highest power silicon-based E-band amplifier to-date. Next, a fully-integrated 8-way power combining amplifier for 110-134 GHz applications in an advanced 90 nm silicon germanium (SiGe) HBT technology is presented. The 8-way amplifier is implemented using 4-stage common-emitter single-ended power amplifiers (PAs) as building blocks, and reactive l/4 impedance transformation networks are used for power combining. The single-ended PA breakout has a small-signal gain of 20 dB at 116 GHz, and saturation output power (Psat ) of 12.5-13.8 dBm at 114-130 GHz. The 8-way power combining PA achieves a small-signal gain of 15 dB at 116 GHz, and Psat of 20-20.8 dBm at 114-126 GHz with a power added efficiency (PAE) of 7.6-6.3%. The 8-way amplifier occupies 4.95 mm2 (including pads) and consumes a maximum current of 980 mA from a 1.6 V supply. To our knowledge, this is the highest power silicon-based D-band amplifier to-date. Next, a fully-integrated 4-way power combining multiplier for 200-230 GHz applications in an advanced 90 nm silicon germanium (SiGe) HBT technology is presented. The 4-way combined multiplier is implemented using active balanced transistor pairs with device size of 460.1 [mu]m2 with 4-stage pseudo-differential driver power amplifiers (PAs) as building blocks, and reactive l/4 impedance transformation networks are used for power combining. The 4-stage single-ended PA breakout has a peak small-signal gain of 19.3 dB at 110 GHz, and a saturation output power (Psat ) of 14.5 dBm at 116 GHz. The multiplier breakout results in a peak output power of 1.8 dBm at 245 GHz with a peak conversion gain of -15.5 dB. The power-combining multiplier achieves a peak output power of 8 dBm at 215 GHz with an associate conversion gain of -4.7 dB and the peak conversion gain is 1.6 dB at 215 GHz. The 4-way combined multiplier occupies 3.63 mm2 (including pads) and consumes a maximum current of 1.2 A from a 1.8 V supply. To our knowledge, this work generates the highest power among the silicon-based technology to-date at frequency above 200 GHz. Finally, high-power stand-alone millimeter-wave frequency multipliers in advanced SiGe and CMOS process are presented. First, a 135-160 GHz active doubler has been developed in 45 nm CMOS SOI. Careful optimization is done on the transistor size, layout and transmission-lines in order to result in the best performance. The doubler shows a measured peak power of +3.5 dBm at 150 GHz and > 2 dBm at 140-160 GHz, at a bias voltage of 1 V. These were achieved at an input power of 7-8 dBm at 70-80 GHz, resulting in a conversion gain of -4 to -5 dBm. To our knowledge, these are the best results achieved for a D-band doubler in SiGe or CMOS, and shows that advanced CMOS technology can be used to generate wideband power above 100 GHz. Second, a wideband 90 nm SiGe BiCMOS frequency multiplier at 200-245 GHz is presented. The balanced multiplier results in a low first harmonic component, and uses a reflector at the base nodes to reflect the second harmonics to transistors for improved efficiency. The measured output power is > -2 dBm at 200-245 GHz with a peak value of +2 dBm at 224-228 GHz and a conversion gain of -15 dB. To the author's knowledge, this is the highest power wideband doubler at 200-250 GHz.

Download or read book A 77GHz Power Amplifier in Silicon Germanium BiCMOS Technology written by Khoa Minh Nguyen and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 108 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The allocation of millimeter-wave frequencies has opened new possibilities for imaging applications such as vehicular radar and concealed weapons detection. Recent advances in silicon processes offer a new means of implementing cost-effective millimeter-wave integrated circuits, a field previously dominated by III-V semiconductors. By moving towards silicon, millimeter-wave circuits can achieve new levels of integration that were not possible when designed with III-V semiconductors. This thesis discusses the challenges and design of a 2-stage cascoded class-AB 77GHz power amplifier that could be used for imaging applications. Simulation results show a maximum output power of 20dBm, 26dB gain, and a maximum power-added efficiency (PAE) of 16%.

Download or read book Design of Millimeter Wave Power Ampliers in Silicon written by Nader Kalantari and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 104 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first part of this dissertation focuses on the millimeter-wave power amplifier in silicon where both switching and linear power amplifiers were investigated. In Chapter 2, a Q-band, Class-E power amplifier has been designed and fabricated in a 120 nm SiGe BiCMOS technology. The amplifier was designed for high output power using on-chip power combining networks. It operates respectively from a 1.2 V supply for peak efficiency and a 2.4 V supply for maximum power and occupies an area of 0.801 mm2. A peak PAE of 18% is measured for an output power of 11.3 dBm at 45 GHz and a maximum of 19.4 dBm is measured at 42 GHz with a PAE of 14.4%. The power amplifier operates from 42 to 50 GHz. Chapter 3, presents a W-band, tapered constructive wave power amplifier (TCWPA) that has been designed and fabricated in a 120 nm SiGe BiCMOS technology. The amplifier has a 3 dB BW of 19 GHz from 91-110 GHz and a maximum gain of 12.5 dB at 101 GHz. At 98 GHz, OP1dB is 4.9 dBm. At 97 GHz, saturated output power is 5.9 dBm and the PAE is 7.2%. The amplifier operates from a 2.4 V supply and occupies an area of 0.22 mm2. A novel circuit topology for power amplifier was introduced in Chapter 4 where only one network is used to provide both input and output matching. This new topology incorporates a feedback network around the transistor to satisfy matching requirements. Circuit parameters can be tuned for small- and large-signal circuit operation. The power amplifier is fabricated in a 120 nm SiGe BiCMOS process and performs from 36 to 41 GHz. The PA achieves a saturated output power of 23 dBm and a peak power added efficiency of 20% at 38 GHz. The second part of this dissertation focuses on the performance analysis of phase-interpolated dual loop clock and data recovery. It presents a four channel receiver for high-speed signal conditioning. Each channel consists of a continuous time linear equalizer (CTLE) and a dual loop CDR with phase-interpolator. All channels share a single PLL that generates and distributes quadrature clock phases to each CDR for data recovery. Clock amplitude, phase INL and phase DNL are derived for IQ phase error and predict phase-dependent jitter contributions to the recovered clock. The multilane receiver was designed in 130 nm CMOS technology. The die occupies an area of 1930 [mu]m by 1250 [mu]m and consumes 67.9 mW per channel. It achieves a maximum data rate of 7 Gbps per channel for 0 and ±200 ppm clock frequency deviation. Quadrature clocks are used in locking mechanism of phase-interpolated CDRs. Due to circuit non-idealities, any mismatch in the quadraure phase causes jitter increase and ultimately increase of bit error rate. The material is presented in Chapter 5.